Methods for treating pulmonary disease using inter-alpha inhibitor proteins

ABSTRACT

The invention features methods for treating or preventing pulmonary diseases, including acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) and pneumonia, in a subject in need thereof that involve administering to the subject inter-alpha inhibitor proteins (lalps), including, e.g., inter-alpha inhibitor (lal) and/or pre-alpha inhibitor (Pal).

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

The present invention relates to the treatment of acute pulmonary disease, including acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) and pneumonia.

BACKGROUND

Acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) is a critical illness characterized by acute lung injury leading to pulmonary edema and respiratory failure. Patients that have experienced trauma, hemorrhage, severe pneumonia, influenza, and/or sepsis are at risk of developing ARDS. Despite significant advances in critical care management, mortality from ARDS remains over 40%. Each year over 100,000 people are estimated to die from complications of ARDS in the United States.

Pneumonia is a common but critical illness characterized by inflammation of the lungs, which most often results from an infection of the lungs. There are over 450 million reported cases of pneumonia and an estimated 4 million deaths resulting from pneumonia each year. Pneumonia is particularly severe among children, the elderly, and patients with chronic disease. Pneumonia can be further classified in terms of location of onset, such as community-acquired or hospital-acquired pneumonia. Community-acquired pneumonia occurs in approximately 1.3 million individuals in the United States each year.

The inflammatory process in the lung that is associated with ARDS and pneumonia is a major contributor to the progression of disease and its adverse outcomes. Current therapy for ARDS and pneumonia focuses on treating the cause of the injury or disease, such as by administration of antibiotics for infection, and therapy also focuses on treating disease related symptoms, such as fluid accumulation and associated reductions in oxygen transport in the alveoli.

There exists a need in the art for improved methods for treating acute pulmonary diseases such as ARDS and pneumonia, for treating the associated inflammatory process, and for improving the tissue repair process in the lung.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

The invention features methods for treating and preventing acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) and pneumonia in a subject in need thereof by administering inter-alpha inhibitor proteins (lαlps), for example, lαl and/or Pαl, to the subject.

In a first aspect, the invention features a method of treating or reducing the likelihood of developing acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) or pneumonia in a subject in need thereof including administering to the subject inter-alpha inhibitor proteins (lαlps).

In several embodiments of the first aspect of the invention, the lαlps include lαl, Pαl, a heavy chain, a light chain, or a combination thereof. In some embodiments, the lαlps include lαl, Pαl, and/or bikunin. In some embodiments, the lαlps include lαl and/or Pαl. In some embodiments, the lαlps include lαl and Pαl. In some embodiments, the heavy chain is selected from the group consisting of H1, H2, H3, H4, and H5. In some embodiments, the light chain is bikunin.

In several embodiments of the first aspect of the invention, the ARDS or the pneumonia is caused by an infection caused by bacteria. In some embodiments, the bacteria are antibiotic resistant bacteria.

In several embodiments of the first aspect of the invention, the method extends a treatment period prior to development of sepsis or organ failure in the subject, relative to an untreated subject.

In several embodiments of the first aspect of the invention, the method includes treating one or more symptoms of the ARDS including mild, moderate or severe hypoxemia as determined by Partial Pressure of arterial oxygen/Fraction of inspired oxygen (PaO₂/FiO₂) or positive end-expiratory pressure (PEEP), bilateral opacities, respiratory failure, shortness of breath, labored breathing, cough, fever, increased heart rate, low blood pressure, confusion, extreme tiredness, rapid breathing, organ failure, chest pain, bluish coloring of nails or lips, an change in the level of one or more inflammatory markers, or need for mechanical ventilation. In some embodiments, the one or more inflammatory markers is selected from the group consisting of TNF-alpha, IL-6, C5a, DAMPs, ERK, NF-κB, IL-10, and a serine protease and combinations thereof. In some embodiments, the change in the level of one or more inflammatory markers is an increase, e.g., relative to a healthy subject. In other embodiments, the change in the level of one or more inflammatory markers is a decrease, e.g., relative to a healthy subject.

In several embodiments of the first aspect of the invention, the subject has one or more symptoms of ARDS including shortness of breath, cough, fever, rapid heart rate, low blood pressure, rapid breathing, chest pain, bluish coloring of nails, or bluish coloring of lips.

In several embodiments of the first aspect of the invention, the ARDS is acute respiratory failure (ARF).

In several embodiments of the first aspect of the invention, the ARDS results from sepsis, pneumonia, ventilation induced pneumonia, trauma, damage to the brain, a blood transfusion, babesiosis, lung contusion, lung transplant, aspiration of stomach contents, drug abuse, drug overdose, a burn, pancreatitis, near drowning, inhalation of chemical fumes, or administration of resuscitation fluid. In some embodiments, the chemical fumes are selected from the group consisting of smoke, phosgene, chlorine gas, acrolein, ammonia, ethylene oxide, formaldehyde, hydrogen chloride, hydrogen fluoride, hydrogen sulfide, methyl bromide, sodium azide, sulfur dioxide, cadmium fume, mercury fume, mustard gas, nickel carbonyl, oxides of nitrogen, ozone. In some embodiments, the ARDS results from sepsis. In some embodiments, the sepsis is infectious sepsis or sterile sepsis. In some embodiments, the resuscitation fluid includes colloid solutions. In some embodiments, the colloid solution includes hydroxyethyl starch solution. In some embodiments, the colloid solution includes albumin. In some embodiments, the trauma is acidosis.

In several embodiments of the first aspect of the invention, the method includes treating one or more symptoms of the pneumonia including symptoms included in the CRB-65 test, the CURB-65 test, or the pneumonia severity index (PSI), cough, fever, shaking chills, shortness of breath, wheezing, chest pain, headache, excessive sweating, clammy skin, loss of appetite, low energy, fatigue, confusion, muscle pain, or muscle weakness.

In several embodiments of the first aspect of the invention, the subject has one or more symptoms of pneumonia including cough, fever, shaking chills, shortness of breath, wheezing, chest pain, headache, excessive sweating, clammy skin, loss of appetite, low energy, fatigue, confusion, muscle pain, muscle weakness, or inflammation.

In several embodiments of the first aspect of the invention, the pneumonia is hospital-acquired pneumonia (HAP), health care-associated pneumonia (HCAP), nursing home-acquired pneumonia (NHAP), ventilator-associated pneumonia (VAP), or community-acquired pneumonia (CAP). In some embodiments, the CAP is severe CAP (sCAP).

In several embodiments of the first aspect of the invention, the pneumonia results from an infection of lung tissue. In some embodiments, the infection is a bacterial infection, a viral infection, a fungal infection, a parasite infection, or an infection caused by another type of microorganism. In some embodiments, the bacterial infection is caused by an Enterobacteriaceae species (spp.), Streptococcus pneumoniae, Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus anthracis, Haemophilus influenzae, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Bordetella pertussis, Moraxella catarrhalis, Coxiella burnetii, Chlamydophila pneumoniae, a Legionella spp., or Mycoplasma pneumoniae. In some embodiments, the Staphylococcus aureus is methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA). In some embodiments, the Legionella species is Legionella pneumonophila. In some embodiments, the viral infection is caused by an influenza virus, parainfluenza, swine origin influenza, Respiratory syncytial virus, Human parainfluenza virus, an Adenovirus, a Metapneumovirus, Severe acute respiratory syndrome virus, herpes simplex virus (HSV), Varicella-zoster virus (VZV), measles virus, Rubella virus, Cytomegalovirus (CMV), smallpox virus, dengue virus, rhinovirus, bocavirus, or Middle East respiratory syndrome virus. In some embodiments, the influenza virus is an influenza virus A or an influenza virus B. In some embodiments, the fungal infection is caused by Histoplasma capsulatum, Coccidioides immitis, Coccidioides posadasii, Pneumocystis jirovecii, Blastomyces dermatitidis, Sporothrix schenckii, Cryptococcus neoformans, Cryptococcus gattii, Paracoccidioides brasiliensis, a Candida spp., an Aspergillus spp., or a Mucor spp.

In several embodiments of the first aspect of the invention, the symptoms (e.g., of the ARDS or the pneumonia) begin within 2 to 72 hours after a lung insult. In some embodiments, the lung insult is or is caused by sepsis, pneumonia, ventilation-induced pneumonia, trauma, damage to the brain, a blood transfusion, babesiosis, lung contusion, lung transplant, aspiration of stomach contents, drug abuse, drug overdose, a burn, pancreatitis, near drowning, inhalation of chemical fumes, lung transplant, a large volume of fluid used during post-trauma resuscitation, or infection of lung tissue. In some embodiments, the lung insult is or is caused by sepsis. In some embodiments, the sepsis is infectious sepsis or sterile sepsis. In some embodiments, the chemical fumes are selected from the group consisting of smoke, phosgene, acrolein, ammonia, ethylene oxide, formaldehyde, hydrogen chloride, hydrogen fluoride, hydrogen sulfide, methyl bromide, sodium azide, sulfur dioxide, cadmium fume, mercury fume, mustard gas, nickel carbonyl, oxides of nitrogen, ozone or chlorine gas.

In several embodiments of the first aspect of the invention, the method includes reducing inflammation and/or promoting repair in lung tissue.

In several embodiments of the first aspect of the invention, the method includes reducing fluid in lung tissue. In some embodiments, the lung tissue is alveolar lung tissue.

In several embodiments of the first aspect of the invention, the method includes administering lαlps to the subject prior to development of sepsis in the subject.

In several embodiments of the first aspect of the invention, the method includes administering lαlps to the subject prior to organ failure in the subject.

In several embodiments of the first aspect of the invention, the method includes measuring the levels of lαlps in a biological sample derived from the subject prior to administration of the lαlps. In some embodiments, the method includes measuring the levels of lαl, Pαl, a heavy chain (e.g., H1, H2, H3, H4, H5, or combinations thereof), a light chain, or a combination thereof. In some embodiments, the method includes measuring the levels of lαl, Pαl, and/or bikunin. In some embodiments, the method includes measuring the levels of lαl and/or Pαl. In some embodiments, the method includes measuring the levels of lαl and Pαl.

In several embodiments of the first aspect of the invention, the method includes measuring the levels of histones or histone/lαl/Pαl complexes in a biological sample derived from the subject.

In several embodiments of the first aspect of the invention, the subject exhibits decreased levels of lαl and/or Pαl relative to a healthy subject. In some embodiments, the level of lαl and/or Pαl of a healthy subject is about 300 mg/L to about 1000 mg/L of circulating lαl and/or Pαl.

In several embodiments of the first aspect of the invention, the subject exhibits increased levels of histones relative to a healthy subject.

In several embodiments of the first aspect of the invention, the subject exhibits increased levels of histone/lαl/Pαl complexes relative to an untreated subject.

In several embodiments of the first aspect of the invention, the method includes restoring or exceeding the level of lαl and/or Pαl in the lung tissue of the subject to that of a healthy subject. In some embodiments, the level of lαl and/or Pαl of a healthy subject is about 300 mg/L to about 1000 mg/L of circulating lαl and/or Pαl.

In several embodiments of the first aspect of the invention, the method includes administering a single dose or multiple doses of the lαlps sufficient to restore or exceed the level of the lαlps in the lung tissue of the subject. In some embodiments, the single dose includes about 1 mg/kg to about 50 mg/kg.

In several embodiments of the first aspect of the invention, the method further includes measuring the level of one or more biomarkers associated with the ARDS or the pneumonia in a biological sample derived from the subject.

In several embodiments of the first aspect of the invention, the one or more biomarkers include histone, histone/Pαl complexes, histone/lαl complexes, histone lαl/Pαl complexes, TNF-α, IL-6, IL-10, IL-1, IL-1ra, IL1B, IL-8, MCP-1, MIP-2, CRP, PCT, cytokine-induced neutrophil chemoattractant/KC, UTI, a complement component, or fragments thereof. In some embodiments, the complement component is selected from the group consisting of C1, C2, C3, C3a, C3b, C4, C4b, C5, C5a, C5b, C6, C7, C8, C9, membrane attack complex, Factor B, Factor D, MASP-1, and MASP-2.

In several embodiments of the first aspect of the invention, the biological sample derived from the subject is a blood sample, a urine sample, a sputum sample, or a bronchiolar lavage fluid sample. In some embodiments, the blood sample is whole blood, serum, plasma, or a combination thereof.

In several embodiments of the first aspect of the invention, the method further includes administering a second treatment for the ARDS or the pneumonia. In some embodiments, the second treatment includes one or more of an antibiotic, an antiviral agent, an antifungal agent, an antiparasitic agent, an anti-inflammatory agent, a bronchodilator, a vasopressor, a sedative, or mechanical ventilation.

In several embodiments of the first aspect of the invention, the method further includes administering an inhibitor of complement activation.

In several embodiments of the first aspect of the invention, the method includes neutralization of histones and extracellular histones.

In several embodiments of the first aspect of the invention, the administration of the lαlps inhibits activation of one or more complement components. In some embodiments, the complement components include C1, C2, C3, C3a, C3b, C4, C4b, C5, C5a, C5b, C6, C7, C8, C9, membrane attack complex, Factor B, Factor D, MASP-1, MASP-2, or fragments thereof.

In several embodiments of the first aspect of the invention, the administration of the lαlps reduces the likelihood of death or hospitalization time for the subject.

In several embodiments of the first aspect of the invention, the method includes administering a composition including lαlps (e.g., lαl and/or Pαl). In some embodiments, the method includes administering a composition including lαl and/or Pαl. In some embodiments, the method includes administering a composition including lαl and Pαl. In some embodiments, the composition includes a dosage of lαl and/or Pαl of about 1 mg/kg to about 50 mg/kg. In some embodiments, the composition includes a dosage of the lαl and/or Pαl of about 5 mg/kg to about 15 mg/kg. In some embodiments, the composition is administered to the subject one or more times every 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 12, or 24 hours, every 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, or 6, days, or every 1, 2, 3, or 4 weeks. In some embodiments, the composition further includes a pharmaceutically acceptable excipient, diluent, or carrier. In some embodiments, the composition is formulated as a solid. In some embodiments, the composition is formulated as a liquid. In some embodiments, the composition is formulated for inhalation, insufflation, nebulization, or injection, or is formulated for oral, rectal, topical, or intraperitoneal administration. In some embodiments, the injection is intravenous injection. In some embodiments, the composition has a half-life of greater than 1, 1.5, 2, 2.5, 3, 3.5, 4, 4.5, 5, 7.5, or 10 hours. In some embodiments, the composition further includes an antibiotic, an antiviral agent, an antifungal agent, an anti-parasitic agent, an anti-inflammatory agent, a vasopressor, a sedative, or a bronchodilator. In some embodiments, the antibiotic agent includes amoxicillin, penicillin, doxycycline, clarithromycin, benzylpenicillin, azithromycin, daptomycin, linezolid, levofloxacin, moxifloxacin, gatifloxcin, gentamicin, macrolides, cephalosporins, azithromycin, ciprofloxacin, cefuroxime, amoxillin-potassium clavulanate, erythromycin, sulfamethoxazole-trimethoprim, doxycycline monohydrate, cefepime, ampicillin, cefpodoxime, ceftriaxone, cefazolin, erythromycin ethylsuccinate, meropenem, piperacillin-tazobactam, amikacin, erythromycin stearate, cefepime in dextrose, doxycycline hyclate, ampicillin-sulbactam, ceftazidime, gemifloxacin, gentamicin sulfate, erythromycin lactobionate, imipenem-cilastatin, cefoxitin, cefditoren pivoxil, ertapenem, doxycycline-benzoyl peroxide, ampicillin-sulbactam, meropenem, cefuroxime, cefotetan, or piperacillin-tazobactam. In some embodiments, the antiviral agent includes zanamivir, oseltamivir, permivir, ribavirin, acyclovir, ganciclovir, foscarnet, or cidofovir. In some embodiments, the antifungal agent includes amphotericin, caspofungin, voriconazole, itraconazole, posaconazole, fluconazole, or flucytosine. In some embodiments, the antiparasitic agent includes nitazoxanide, melarsoprol, eflornithine, metronidazole, tinidazole, miltefosine, mebendazole, pyrantel pamoate, thiabendazole, diethylcarbamazine, ivermectin, albendazole, praziquantel, or rifampin. In some embodiments, the anti-inflammatory agent includes a corticosteroid, a statin, a steroid, a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug, or a glucocorticoid. In some embodiments, the bronchodilator includes a beta 2 agonist, a xanthine, ipratropium, oxitropium, a muscarinic receptor antagonist, ipratropium, oxitropium, theophylline, theobromine, caffeine, salbutamol, isoproterenol, albuterol, levalburerol, pirbuterol, metaproterenol, terbutaline, salmeterol, or formoterol. In some embodiments, the vasopressor includes epinephrine, isoproterenol, phenylephrine, norepinephrine, dobutamine, ephedrine, or droxidopa. In some embodiments, the sedative includes propofol, diprivan, morphine, fentanyl, midazolam, lorazepam, precede, infumorph, dexmedetomidine, or alfentanil. In some embodiments, the composition further includes an inhibitor of complement activation. In some embodiments, the composition inhibits activation of one or more complement components. In some embodiments, the complement components include C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, or fragments thereof.

In several embodiments of the first aspect of the invention, the subject is a mammal. In some embodiments, the mammal is human. In some embodiments, the human is an infant, a child, or an adult. In particular, the subject is a child or is an adult at or above the age of 65 years old. In some embodiments, the mammal is a horse, a dog, a cat, a rabbit, or a pig. In some embodiments, the subject has the ARDS or the pneumonia.

In several embodiments of the first aspect of the invention, the subject is not hospitalized. In other embodiments, the subject is hospitalized. In some embodiments, the subject is in an intensive care unit.

In several embodiments of the first aspect of the invention, the subject requires ventilator-assisted breathing. In some embodiments, the ventilator-assisted breathing is mechanical ventilator-assisted breathing. In some embodiments, the mechanical ventilator-assisted breathing is invasive mechanical ventilator-assisted breathing. In some embodiments, the mechanical ventilator-assisted breathing is non-invasive mechanical ventilator-assisted breathing. In some embodiments, the mechanical ventilator-assisted breathing is pressure-limited or volume-limited.

In several embodiments of the first aspect of the invention, the subject has one or more organ failures. In some embodiments, the subject has two or more organ failures. In some embodiments, the subject has failures of the liver failure, kidney, intestine, heart, or brain. In some embodiments, the subject has respiratory failure.

In several embodiments of the first aspect of the invention, the subject is identified as being in need of treatment using one or more of the following: chest imaging, arterial blood gas level, partial pressure of oxygen (PaO₂) levels, partial pressure of carbon dioxide (PaCO₂) levels, blood pH, pathogen specific test, or sputum evaluation. In some embodiments, the chest imaging is chest X-ray.

In several embodiments of the first aspect of the invention, the subject is identified as having mild, moderate or severe hypoxemia as determined by PaO₂/FiO₂ or positive end-expiratory pressure (PEEP).

In several embodiments of the first aspect of the invention, the subject is identified as having bilateral opacities consistent with edema.

In several embodiments of the first aspect of the invention, the subject is identified as having confusion, blood urea nitrogen being equal to one more than 20 mg/dL, respiratory rate being equal to or greater than 30 breaths per minute, systolic blood pressure being less than 90 mm Hg, diastolic blood pressure being equal to or less than 60 mm Hg, or is 65 or older.

In several embodiments of the first aspect of the invention, the subject is identified as being a nursing home resident; having neoplastic disease; having a history of liver, heart, cerebrovascular, or renal disease; being in a state of altered mental state; having a respiratory rate greater than or equal to 30 breaths per minute; having a systolic blood pressure above 90 mmHg, having a temperature above 35° C. or greater than or equal to 40° C.; having a pulse greater than or equal to 125/min; arterial pH less than 7.35; having a blood urea nitrogen greater than or equal to 30 ng/dL, sodium levels being greater than 130 mmol/L; having glucose levels greater than or equal to 250 mg/dl or greater than 13.8 mmol/liter); having hematocrit values being less than 30%; having a partial pressure of oxygen less than 60 mm Hg; or by the presence of pleural effusion on X-ray.

In several embodiments of the first aspect of the invention, the administration of the lαlps reduces the physiological response to inflammatory mediators such as cytokines, chemokines, complement, or histones.

In several embodiments of the first aspect of the invention, the subject has undergone a lung transplant. In some embodiments, the subject is scheduled to undergo a lung transplant.

In several embodiments of the first aspect of the invention, the method includes administering the lαlps (e.g., lαl and/or Pαl) to the subject at least 10, 15, 20, 30, 60, or 120 minutes after a lung insult. In some embodiments, the lung insult occurs as a result of radiation treatment, chemotherapy, or exposure to high altitude, swimming, or diving.

In several embodiments of the first aspect of the invention, the method includes administering the lαlps (e.g., lαl and/or Pαl) to the subject at least 10, 15, 20, 30, 60, or 120 minutes before a lung insult. In some embodiments, the lung insult occurs as a result of surgery.

In several embodiments of the first aspect of the invention, the lαlps (e.g., lαl and/or Pαl) are administered at physiological proportions.

In several embodiments of the first aspect of the invention, the lαlps (e.g., lαl and/or Pαl) are at about 80% to about 100% purity (e.g., about 80%, about 81%, about 82%, about 83%, about 84%, about 85%, about 86%, about 87%, about 88%, about 89%, about 90%, about 91%, about 92%, about 93%, about 94%, about 95%, about 96%, about 97%, about 98%, about 99%, or about 100% purity).

Definitions

As used herein, the term “acute respiratory distress syndrome” or “ARDS” refers to an acute form of lung injury characterized by widespread inflammation of the lungs that may include, for example, diffuse alveolar injury, surfactant dysfunction, an innate immune response, and/or abnormal coagulation. ARDS is also typically characterized by bilateral pulmonary infiltrates and severe hypoxemia in the absence of evidence for cardiogenic pulmonary edema. The severity of hypoxemia necessary to make the diagnosis of ARDS can be defined by the ratio of the partial pressure of oxygen in the patient's arterial blood (PaO₂) to the fraction of oxygen in the inspired air (FiO₂) (PaO₂/FiO₂). A definition of ARDS depends on the relationship of the timing of the onset of clinical symptoms to the lung injury, radiographic changes, origin of edema, and severity of the symptoms based on the measurement of PaO₂/FiO₂ ratio on 5 cm of H₂O continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP). The 2012 Berlin definition for ARDS classified ARDS into three categories based on the degree of hypoxemia as determined by PaO₂/FiO₂: mild ARDS (PaO₂/FiO₂ 200-300 mm Hg), moderate ARDS (PaO₂/FiO₂ 100-200 mm Hg), and severe ARDS (PaO₂/FiO₂≤100 mm Hg) (see, e.g., The ARDS Definition Task Force, JAMA 307(23):2526-2533, 2012). The American-European Consensus Conference on ARDS (AECC) classified ARDS in terms of a PaO₂/FiO₂ ratio of less than 200 mm Hg, whereas acute lung injury (ALI), which is less severe than ARDS, was characterized by a PaO₂/FiO₂ of less than 300 mm Hg (Bernard et al., Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 143(3 Pt 1):818-824, 1994). It is to be understood that the term “ARDS” encompasses any suitable clinical definition for ARDS known in the art, including the 2012 Berlin definition or the 1994 AECC definition.

As used herein, the term “acute respiratory failure” refers to a condition in which fluid builds up in the air sacs of the lung, thereby reducing the release of oxygen into the blood stream (hypoxemia) and removal of CO₂ (hypercapnia) and leading to a hypoxic condition in the subject. The hypoxic condition can reduce oxygen delivery to organs, which can result in organ failure. Failure to remove CO₂ from blood can result in respiratory acidosis characterized by an increase in blood pH.

As used herein, the term “community-acquired pneumonia” or “CAP” refers to pneumonia acquired by a patient outside a hospital or long-term care facility. While CAP can occur in a patient of any age, CAP is typically considered a disease predominantly of the elderly, with incidence rising steeply above about 70 years of age. In patients above 65 years of age, CAP can be associated with more severe disease and fewer of the classical symptoms such as fever and chest pain as compared to younger patients. CAP-associated mortality is greatest within about the first 5 days of hospitalization.

As used herein, the term “complement activation” refers to the activation of complement components that react with one another to induce a series of inflammatory responses that help to fight infection. The complement system activates through a triggered-enzyme cascade.

As used herein, the term “complement components” refers to complement system proteins in the classical pathway, lectin pathway, and the alternate complement pathways, including but not limited to C1, C2, C3 (e.g., C3a and C3b), C4 (e.g., C4b), C5 (e.g., C5a and C5b), C6, C7, C8, C9, membrane attack complex, Factor B, Factor D, mannan-binding lectin associated serine protease 1 (MASP-1), and MASP-2, and fragments thereof.

The term “health care-associated pneumonia” or “HCAP” refers to a pneumonia that includes patients who have been hospitalized within about 90 days of the infection, resided in a nursing home or long-term care facility (which is referred to herein as “nursing home-acquired pneumonia” or “NHAP”), or received parenteral antimicrobial therapy, chemotherapy, or wound care within about 30 days of onset of pneumonia. NHAP is currently the largest subgroup of HCAP. NHAP is associated with a relatively high mortality rate, which may in part be due to the fact that patients are typically older, have greater comorbidity, and more severe functional impairment than a typical CAP patient.

As used herein, the term “hospital-acquired pneumonia” refers to a pneumonia contracted by a patient while present in a medical facility such as a hospital. Hospital-acquired pneumonia may be contracted by a patient, for example, at least about 48-72 hours after being admitted to a hospital.

As used herein, the term “inter-alpha inhibitor proteins” or “lαlps” refers to large, multi-component glycoproteins in a family of structurally related serine protease inhibitors. lαlps have been shown to be important in the inhibition of an array of proteases including neutrophil elastase, plasmin, trypsin, chymotrypsin, Granzyme K, preprotein convertase, furin, cathepsin G, and acrosin. In human plasma, lαlps are found at relatively high concentrations (400-800 mg/L). Unlike other inhibitor molecules, this family of inhibitors typically includes a combination of polypeptide chains (light and heavy chains) covalently linked by a chondroitin sulfate chain. The heavy chains of lαlps (H1, H2, and H3) are also called hyaluronic acid (HA) binding proteins. The major forms of lαlps found in human plasma are inter-alpha-inhibitor (lαl), which contains two heavy chains (H1 and H2) and a single light chain (L), and pre-alpha-inhibitor (Pαl), which contains one heavy (H3) and one light chain (L). Another lαlp is the light chain (also termed bikunin (bi-kunitz inhibitor) with two Kunitz domains), which is known to broadly inhibit plasma serine proteases. Another lαlp is the heavy chain-related molecule H4, which circulates in the blood without linkage to bikunin. Yet another lαlp is the heavy chain-related molecule H5. lαl and Pαl present in the plasma fraction have an apparent molecular weight of between about 60 kDa to about 280 kDa.

As used herein, the term “pneumonia” refers to an inflammatory condition in the lung which is the result of an infection caused by bacteria, viruses, fungi, or other microorganisms such as parasites (e.g., protozoan parasites). Pneumonia is typically diagnosed with chest X-rays, by clinical assessments, sputum culture, and/or blood culture. In a patient having pneumonia, the air sacs fill with fluid (e.g., pus) and may become solid. The infection and related inflammation may affect both lungs, one lung, or only certain lobes of a lung. The term “pneumonia” encompasses any suitable clinical definition or classification of pneumonia known in the art, for example, the CRB-65 criteria, CURB-65 criteria (see, e.g., Lim et al., Thorax 58(5):377-382, 2003) or the pneumonia severity index (PSI) (see, e.g., Fine et al., N. Engl. J. Med. 336(4):243-250, 1997). These criteria are also described in Wente et al. Respiratory Medicine 109:157-169, 2015, which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. The term pneumonia encompasses any suitable type of pneumonia, including but not limited to hospital-acquired pneumonia (HAP), health care-associated pneumonia (HCAP), nursing home-acquired pneumonia (NHAP), ventilator-associated pneumonia (VAP), and community acquired pneumonia (CAP), including severe CAP (sCAP).

As used herein, the phrase “reducing fluid in lung tissue” refers to a decrease in the volume of fluid in the lungs using, e.g., a method such as aspiration, administration of a therapeutic (e.g., a diuretic or a heart medication), or surgery to reduce excess fluid in lungs. The reduction may be relative to a reference or a control treatment (e.g., a placebo or a reference therapeutic agent). The reduction may also be relative to a volume of fluid in a subject prior to onset of treatment, or at a time point following treatment.

As used herein, the phrase “reducing the likelihood of developing” refers to prophylactic treatment of a patient who susceptible to, or otherwise at risk of, a particular disease, syndrome, or condition (e.g., the conditions described herein, such as acute pulmonary disease (e.g., ARDS or pneumonia)) or is at risk of a current disease, syndrome, or condition increasing in its degree of severity, for example, a patient having CAP who is at risk of progressing to severe community acquired pneumonia (sCAP).

As used herein, the term “respiratory failure” refers to a condition resulting from inadequate gas exchange by the respiratory system in which insufficient oxygen passes from the lungs into blood and CO₂ is expelled.

As used herein, the term “sepsis” refers to a systemic response to an infection (referred to herein as “infectious sepsis”) or to a non-infectious process associated with acute tissue injury and innate immune activation (referred to interchangeably herein as “sterile inflammation” or “sterile sepsis”), which can lead to tissue damage, organ failure, and death. Infectious sepsis can result from an infection caused by bacteria, viruses, fungi, or other microorganisms such as parasites (e.g., protozoan parasites). Sterile sepsis can occur after hemorrhagic shock, polytrauma, pancreatitis, transplant rejection, autoimmune disease, or ischemia/reperfusion and is not associated with the presence of a known infection.

As used herein, the term “severe community acquired pneumonia” or “sCAP” refers to a type of CAP wherein the patients require admission to the intensive care unit. In some cases, a patient with sCAP may have septic shock and/or acute respiratory failure, which may require intubation and mechanical ventilation.

As used herein, the term “subject” refers to a mammal, including, but not limited to, a human or non-human mammal, such as a primate, bovine, equine, porcine, ovine, feline, or canine. The subject may be a patient.

As used herein, the term “treating” refers to reducing or ameliorating a disorder and/or symptoms associated therewith. It will be appreciated that, although not precluded, treating a disorder or condition does not require that the disorder or symptoms associated therewith be completely eliminated.

As used herein the term “ventilator-assisted breathing” refers to non-spontaneous breathing through the assistance of a machine that assists the patient to exchange O₂ and CO₂ in the lungs.

The term “ventilator-associated pneumonia” or “VAP” refers to a pneumonia that occurs in subjects who are undergoing ventilator-assisted breathing.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

The invention features methods of treating subjects having or at risk of ARDS and/or pneumonia and methods of reducing the likelihood of progression of a disease (e.g., ARDS and/or pneumonia) in a subject in need thereof by administering inter-alpha inhibitor proteins (Iαlps), for example, lαl and/or Pαl, to the subject.

Patient Population

The invention provides methods of treating subjects that present with ARDS, pneumonia, or symptoms thereof. The invention also provides methods of reducing the likelihood of developing ARDS or pneumonia in subjects that are susceptible or prone to developing ARDS or pneumonia, for example, due to a predisposition or an expected insult, such as physical trauma or exposure to an infective agent.

Subjects suitable for treatment using the methods of the invention are those identified as having ARDS or pneumonia. These subjects may be further diagnosed as having a subcategory of ARDS or pneumonia. A subject that has ARDS may have, for example, acute respiratory failure (ARF). A subject that has pneumonia may have, for example, hospital-acquired pneumonia (HAP), healthcare-associated pneumonia (HCAP), ventilator-associated pneumonia (VAP), nursing home-associated pneumonia (NHAP), or community-acquired pneumonia (CAP), such as severe community-acquired pneumonia (sCAP).

A subject may have clinical, specific, or non-specific symptoms or signs of ARDS or pneumonia. Non-limiting examples of clinical symptoms of ARDS include one or more of the following: the presence of dyspnea; tachypnea; hypoxemia; respiratory failure; presentation with a ratio of partial pressure of arterial oxygen to fraction of inspired oxygen (PaO₂/FiO₂) of about 300 mm Hg or less (e.g., about 300 mm Hg, about 250 mm Hg, about 225 mm Hg, about 200 mm Hg, about 175 mm Hg, about 150 mm Hg, about 125 mm Hg, about 100 mm Hg, about 75 mm Hg, or about 50 mm Hg); the presence of unilateral or bilateral infiltrates on frontal chest radiograph; a measured level of pulmonary artery wedge pressure of 18 mm Hg or less, or no clinical evidence of left atrial hypertension. Additional non-limiting examples of ARDS symptoms include shortness of breath (e.g., severe shortness of breath), cough, fever, increased heart rate, rapid breathing, chest pain (e.g., chest pain during inhalation), and bluish coloring of nails or lips.

A medical professional may diagnose clinical pneumonia to determine if the subject is suitable for treatment using the methods of this invention by assessing the subject using the parameters included in CRB-65 criteria, the CURB-65 criteria and/or the pneumonia severity index (PSI). These criteria are described, for example, in Welte et al. Respiratory Medicine 109:157-169, 2015; see, e.g., Table 2.

The parameters assessed in the CRB-65 criteria include one or more of the following: confusion, respiratory rate, systolic blood pressure, diastolic blood pressure, and age. The subject scores one point each for the presence of the following clinical factors: confusion (defined as an abbreviated mental test score (AMTS) of 8 or less), respiratory rate being equal to or greater than 30 breaths per minute, systolic blood pressure being less than 90 mm Hg or diastolic blood pressure being equal to or less than 60 mm Hg, and being 65 years of age or older. Depending on how the subject scores on the CRB-65 criteria (i.e., from 1 to 4), the physician can determine the severity of pneumonia, with a score of 1 being the least severe form of pneumonia and a score of 4 being the most severe form of pneumonia.

The parameters assessed in the CURB-65 criteria include one or more of the following: confusion, blood urea nitrogen level, respiratory rate, systolic blood pressure, diastolic blood pressure, and age. The subject scores one point each for the presence of the following clinical factors: confusion (defined as an abbreviated mental test score (AMTS) of 8 or less), blood urea nitrogen greater than 7 mmol/l, respiratory rate being equal to or greater than 30 breaths per minute, systolic blood pressure being less than 90 mm Hg or diastolic blood pressure being equal to or less than 60 mm Hg, and being 65 years of age or older. Depending on how the subject scores on the CURB-65 criteria (i.e., from 1 to 5), the physician can determine the severity of pneumonia, with a score of 1 being the least severe form of pneumonia and a score of 5 being the most severe form of pneumonia.

The PSI factors may also be used to diagnose pneumonia and to determine its severity. The PSI index includes a total of 20 parameters (3 demographic, 5 comorbid conditions, 5 physical examination findings, and 7 laboratory or imaging variables). Any combination of the PSI factors may be used to diagnose pneumonia and/or determine its severity. Non-limiting examples of PSI factors that increase the severity of pneumonia include being a nursing home resident, being under 5 years of age, having neoplastic disease, having a history of disease (e.g., liver disease, congestive heart failure, cerebrovascular disease, or renal disease), being in an altered mental state, and laboratory findings (e.g., one or more of a respiratory rate greater than or equal to 30 breaths per minute, systolic blood pressure above 90 mmHg, temperature above 35° C. or greater than or equal to 40° C., pulse greater than or equal to 125/min, arterial pH less than 7.35, blood urea nitrogen greater than or equal to 30 ng/dL, sodium levels being greater than 130 mmol/L, glucose levels being greater than or equal to 250 mg/dl (US) or greater than 13.8 mmol/liter (SI), hematocrit values being less than 30%, partial pressure of oxygen being less than 60 mm Hg, and presence of pleural effusion on X-ray). The factors used to determine the severity of pneumonia may be weighed and scored differently according to approaches known in the art.

A medical professional may use the severity criteria developed by the American Thoracic Society (ATS) to diagnose sCAP. Non-limiting examples ATS factors that increase the severity of community acquired pneumonia are having a respiratory rate above 30 breaths per minute, a PaO₂/FiO₂ equal to or above 250 mm Hg, multilobar infiltrates, confusion and/or disorientation, uremia (e.g., BUN level greater than or equal to 20 mg/dL), leukopenia (e.g., WBC count of less than 4×10⁹ cells/L), thrombocytopenia (e.g., platelet count being less than 100×10⁹ cells), hypothermia (e.g., core temperature being less than 36° C.), hypotension, receiving invasive mechanical ventilation, or being in need of vasopressors.

In addition to the presence of conditions such as prior disease history and laboratory findings, a subject may be diagnosed as having pneumonia based on the presence of one or more additional symptoms. Non-limiting examples of such additional symptoms of pneumonia include one or more of cough, fever, shaking chills, shortness of breath, wheezing, chest pain (e.g. stabbing chest pain that gets worse when the subject breathes deeply, or when the subject coughs), headache, excessive sweating, clammy skin, loss of appetite, low energy (e.g., fatigue), confusion, muscle pain, or muscle weakness.

In addition to the diagnostic tools and symptoms described above, a variety of clinical diagnostic tools may also be used to diagnose ARDS and pneumonia in a subject. Non-limiting examples of such clinical diagnostic tools include one or more of chest X-ray, arterial blood gas level, partial pressure of carbon dioxide (PaCO₂) level, blood pH, sputum evaluation, bronchoscopy, and others known in the art.

The underlying physiological reason causing the subject to develop ARDS or pneumonia may be an infection (e.g., a bacterial infection, a viral infection, a fungal infection, or an infection by another type of microorganism (e.g., a parasite, such as a protozoan parasite)). There are many different types of bacteria, viruses, fungi, and/or other microorganisms (e.g., parasites) that can infect a subject. Determining the type of microorganism that is causing the infection associated with ARDS or pneumonia (e.g., using a pathogen-specific test) can be useful, as the type of treatment(s), for example, type of therapeutic agent (e.g., antibiotic agent) suitable for the subject may be determined accordingly.

Non-limiting examples of bacteria that can cause a bacterial infection that may lead to, exacerbate, or occur as a result of ARDS or pneumonia include, e.g., Enterobacteriaceae species (spp.), Streptococcus pneumoniae, Staphylococcus aureus (e.g., methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA)), Bacillus anthracis, Haemophilus influenzae, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Bordetella pertussis, Moraxella catarrhalis, Coxiella burnetii, Chlamydophila pneumoniae, Mycoplasma pneumoniae, Legionella spp., Legionella pneumophila, gram negative bacteria, gram positive bacteria, and others known in the art. Cardiac disease, cerebrovascular disease, age of greater than 65 years, and nursing home residency have been shown to be independent risk factors for infection by Enterobacteriaceae. The bacteria causing an infection can be sensitive to common antibiotics or can be antibiotic-resistant. In some cases, relatively uncommon pathogens such as gram negative bacteria and MRSA may be resistant to first-line empirical antibiotic treatment.

Non-limiting examples of antibiotic-resistant bacteria include Clostridium difficile, carbapenem-resistant Enterobacteriaceae, Neisseria gonorrhoeae, multidrug-resistant Acinetobacter, drug-resistant Campylobacter, fluconazole-resistantCandida, extended spectrum Enterobacteriaceae, vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus, multidrug-resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa, drug-resistant non-typhoidal Salmonella, drug-resistant Salmonella serotype typhi, drug-resistant Shigella, methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), drug-resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae, drug-resistant Tuberculosis, vancomycin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus, erythromycin-resistant Group A Streptococcus, and clindamycin-resistant Group B Streptococcus.

Non-limiting examples of viruses that can cause a viral infection that may lead to, exacerbate, or occur as a result of ARDS or pneumonia include, e.g., Influenza virus A, Influenza virus B, parainfluenza, swine origin influenza, Respiratory syncytial virus, Human parainfluenza viruses, Adenoviruses, Metapneumovirus, Severe acute respiratory syndrome virus, herpes simplex virus (HSV), Varicella-zoster virus (VZV), measles virus, Rubella virus, Cytomegalovirus (CMV), smallpox virus, dengue virus, rhinovirus, bocavirus, Middle East respiratory syndrome virus, and others known in the art. Determining the kind of virus that is causing the infection associated with ARDS or pneumonia (e.g., using a pathogen-specific test) can be important as the type of treatment (e.g., the antiviral agent) suitable for the subject may be determined accordingly. Mortality due to viral pneumonia may be similar to that associated with bacterial pneumonia.

Non-limiting examples of fungi that can cause a fungal infection that may lead to, exacerbate, or occur as a result of ARDS or pneumonia include Candida spp. (e.g., Candida albicans), Aspergillus spp., Mucor spp., Histoplasma capsulatum, Coccidioides immitis, Coccidioides posadasii, Pneumocystis jirovecii, Blastomyces dermatitidis, Sporothrix schenckii, Cryptococcus neoformans, Cryptococcus Paracoccidioides brasiliensis, Aspergillus species, Mucor species and others known in the art. Determining the kind of fungus that is causing the infection associated with ARDS or pneumonia (e.g., using a pathogen-specific test) can be important as the type of treatment (e.g., the type of antifungal agent) suitable for the subject may be determined accordingly.

Subjects that have not yet developed ARDS or pneumonia, but that might be susceptible to developing ARDS or pneumonia due to an expected insult (e.g., trauma or exposure to an infective agent), are also suitable for treatment using the methods of this invention. Non-limiting examples of such subjects are those who have undergone a lung transplant or are scheduled to undergo a lung transplant.

In particular, the subject to be treated according to the methods described herein is a mammal, such as a human (e.g., an infant, a child, or an adult human). The subject may also be a non-human mammal, such as a horse, a dog, a cat, a rabbit, or a pig.

If the subject is in distress, they may be hospitalized (e.g., in an intensive care unit). Alternatively, the subject may be stable, and thus treatable in an outpatient clinic or in their home.

The subject may have spontaneous breathing that is inadequate to maintain life. Such subjects may require artificial ventilation in order to assist with or to replace spontaneous breathing. This may involve treatment with a mechanical ventilator. A mechanical ventilator may operate in two different modes. The first mode is positive pressure ventilation, where air is pushed into the trachea of the subject. The second mode is negative pressure ventilation, where air is sucked into the lungs. A mechanical ventilator operating in either the first mode or the second mode can be used in the context of the invention. The mechanical ventilator-assisted breathing may be pressure-limited or volume-limited. Treatment with a mechanical ventilator may occur before or after treatment of the subject with an lαlp (e.g., lαl and/or Pαl) according to the methods of treatment described below.

If the subject is left untreated or if their treatment is not effective, ARDS or pneumonia can lead to organ failure and sepsis. The sepsis may be infectious sepsis or sterile sepsis. Sterile sepsis can also lead to ARDS and organ failure. Noninfectious stimuli including mechanical trauma, ischemia, toxins, minerals, crystals, chemicals, and antigens can trigger inflammation resulting in sterile sepsis. Organ failure involves organ dysfunction to such a degree that normal homeostasis cannot be maintained without external clinical intervention. The organ failure may involve liver failure, kidney failure, intestine failure, heart failure, or brain failure, for example. The subject may have respiratory failure. A subject having ARDS or pneumonia that develops organ failure or sepsis (e.g., infectious sepsis or sterile sepsis) can be treated by administering lαlps (e.g., lαl and/or Pαl) and/or a composition that includes lαlps (e.g., lαl and/or Pαl) according to the methods described herein.

Additionally subjects suitable for treatment using the methods of the invention include subjects with an acute lung injury or insult that develops into ARDS or pneumonia. Non-limiting examples of such insults or injuries include sepsis (including infectious sepsis and sterile sepsis), systemic inflammatory response syndrome (SIRS), pneumonia, ventilation-induced pneumonia, trauma, a blood transfusion, babesiosis, lung contusion, aspiration of stomach contents, drug abuse, drug overdose, a burn, pancreatitis, near drowning, inhalation of a chemical agent (e.g., chemical fumes, for example, chemical fumes selected from the group consisting of smoke, phosgene, acrolein, ammonia, ethylene oxide, formaldehyde, hydrogen chloride, hydrogen fluoride, hydrogen sulfide, methyl bromide, sodium azide, sulfur dioxide, cadmium fume, mercury fume, mustard gas, nickel carbonyl, oxides of nitrogen, ozone and chlorine gas), lung transplant, administration of a large volume of fluid used during post-trauma resuscitation, infection of lung tissue, surgery, radiation treatment, chemotherapy, exposure to high altitude, swimming, or diving. In some cases, the sepsis is infectious sepsis. In other cases, the sepsis is sterile sepsis.

Each of the subjects identified above as having an acute lung injury or insult, such as ARDS or pneumonia, or likely to develop an acute lung injury or insult, and those that subsequently develop other conditions, such as sepsis (e.g., infectious sepsis or sterile sepsis), can be treated by the methods of the invention.

Therapeutic Methods

The methods of the invention involve administering inter-alpha inhibitor proteins (lαlps) (e.g., inter-alpha inhibitor (lαl) and/or pre-alpha inhibitor (Pαl)) or a composition containing lαlps (e.g., lαl and/or Pαl) to a subject having ARDS or pneumonia, a subject likely to develop ARDS or pneumonia, a subject with sterile sepsis associated with ARDS, or a subject having sepsis (e.g., infectious sepsis or sterile sepsis) associated with ARDS or pneumonia. lαlps can be administered to a subject having or likely to develop acute respiratory failure (ARF). ARDS can include the 2012 Berlin definition or the 1994 AECC definition. Pneumonia can include hospital-acquired pneumonia (HAP), healthcare-associated pneumonia (HCAP), nursing home-acquired pneumonia (NHAP), ventilator-associated pneumonia (VAP), and community-acquired pneumonia (CAP), such as severe community acquired pneumonia (sCAP). Subjects in need of treatment can be identified using the clinical and symptomatic criteria described herein, or other approaches known in the art.

The methods of the invention can extend the period that the subject can be treated prior to developing sepsis (including infectious sepsis or sterile sepsis), SIRS, or organ failure, thereby prolonging the life span of the subject and/or the treatment window for the subject; for example, by minutes (e.g., 30 to 60 minutes or more), hours (e.g., 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 10, 15, 20, or 24 hours or more), days (e.g., 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, or 7 days or more), or weeks (e.g., 1, 2, 3, or 4 or more weeks). The methods may reduce the hospitalization time of the subject (e.g., by 1%, 5%, 10%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, 90%, 95%, 99%, or more). For example, the patient may be discharged from the hospital 1-10 hours, 1-7 days, or 1-2 weeks sooner than a patient that is not treated with lαlps. In some cases, the methods can reduce the likelihood of death of the subject (e.g., by 1%, 5%, 10%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, 90%, 95%, 99%, or more), relative to an untreated subject having the same condition.

The methods can include predicting a response to treatment by lαlps (e.g., lαl and/or Pαl) that includes assaying a sample obtained from a subject to detect the level of lαlps. Any suitable approach to determine the level of lαlps may be used, for example, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), western blotting, or mass spectrometry. The subject in need of treatment can be identified as having decreased levels of lαlps (e.g., lαl and/or Pαl) as compared to a healthy subject. Measuring the levels of the lαlps allows for identification of a subject that may respond favorably to administration of lαlps (e.g., lαl and/or Pαl) and/or compositions thereof.

The methods of treating and reducing the likelihood of developing ARDS and/or pneumonia can include restoring the levels of lαlps (e.g., lαl and/or Pαl) in the lung tissue of a subject to a level corresponding to that of a healthy subject. A healthy subject may be one that does not have ARDS (e.g., ARF) or pneumonia (e.g., CAP (e.g., sCAP), HAP, HCAP, VAP, or NHAP). The dose of lαlps (e.g., lαl and/or Pαl) administered to a subject can be sufficient to restore the level of lαlps (e.g., lαl and/or Pαl) to the level of a healthy subject. The methods can also include administering lαlps (e.g., lαl and/or Pαl) to a level that exceeds that of a healthy subject. In some instances, the level of lαl or Pαl of a healthy subject is about 500 mg/L to about 1200 mg/L (e.g., about 500 mg/L, about 600 mg/L, about 700 mg/L, about 800 mg/L, about 900 mg/L, about 1000 mg/L, about 1100 mg/L, or about 1200 mg/L) of circulating lαl and/or Pαl.

A subject may also be identified as having ARDS or pneumonia or in need of treatment for ARDS and/or pneumonia by detecting the level of one or more biomarkers associated with ARDS and/or pneumonia. For example, the method may include measuring the level of one or more biomarkers selected from lαlps (e.g., lαl and/or Pαl), histone (e.g., extracellular histone), histone/Pαl, histone/lαl, histone lαl/Pαl complexes, TNF-alpha, IL-6, IL-10, IL-1, IL-1ra, IL1B, IL-8, MCP-1, MIP-2, C-reactive protein (CRP), procalcitonin (PCT), cytokine-induced neutrophil chemoattractant/KC, UTI, complement components (e.g., C1, C2, C3 (e.g., C3a and C3b), C4 (e.g., C4b), C5 (e.g., C5a and C5b), C6, C7, C8, C9, membrane attack complex, Factor B, Factor D, MASP-1, and MASP-2), or fragments thereof. The method can include measuring the protein level or the nucleic acid level of one or more of these biomarkers.

For example, with respect to ARDS, the level of one or more biomarkers selected from lαlps (e.g., lαl and/or Pαl), histone (e.g., extracellular histone), histone/Pαl, histone/lαl, histone lαl/Pαl complexes, TNF-alpha, IL-6, IL-10, IL-1, IL-1ra, IL1B, IL-2, IL-4, IL-8, IL-15, MCP-1, MIP-2, CRP, PCT, cytokine-induced neutrophil chemoattractant/KC, UTI, complement components (e.g., C1, C2, C3 (e.g., C3a and C3b), C4 (e.g., C4b), C5 (e.g., C5a and C5b), C6, C7, C8, C9, membrane attack complex, Factor B, Factor D, MASP-1, and MASP-2), or fragments thereof, may be changed (e.g., increased or decreased) relative to a reference level. Appropriate levels for biomarkers associated with ARDS are known in the art. Exemplary, non-limiting levels of biomarkers associated with ARDS, which may be indicative of the presence and/or severity of ARDS, are provided by Tzouvelekis et al., Respir. Res. 6(1):62, 2005, which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety.

For example, the level of TNF-alpha associated with ARDS may be about 400 pg/ml or greater. The level of IL-1 B associated with ARDS can be about 400 pg/ml or greater. The level of IL-2 associated with ARDS can be about 200 pg/ml or greater. In other instances, the level of IL-2 associated with ARDS can be about 173 pg/ml or greater (see, e.g., Agouridakis et al., Eur. J. Clin. Invest. 32(11):862-7, 2002). The level of IL-4 associated with ARDS can be about 200 pg/ml or greater. The level of IL-6 associated with ARDS can be about 400 pg/ml or greater. The level of IL-8 associated with ARDS can be about 400 pg/ml or greater. The level of IL-15 associated with ARDS can be about 250 pg/ml or greater. The level of a biomarker for ARDS can be measured in any suitable biological sample, for example, blood (e.g., whole blood, plasma, or serum), bronchial lavage fluid (BALF), sputum, urine, cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), a tissue biopsy, and the like. Any of the preceding levels may be a plasma level.

With respect to pneumonia, the level of one or more biomarkers selected from lαlps (e.g., lαl and/or Pαl), histone (e.g., extracellular histone), histone/Pαl, histone/lαl, histone lαl/Pαl complexes, TNF-alpha, IL-6, IL-10, IL-1, IL-1ra, IL1B, IL-8, MCP-1, MIP-2, CRP), procalcitonin (PCT), cytokine-induced neutrophil chemoattractant/KC, UTI, complement components (e.g., C1, C2, C3 (e.g., C3a and C3b), C4 (e.g., C4b), C5 (e.g., C5a and C5b), C6, C7, C8, C9, membrane attack complex, Factor B, Factor D,

MASP-1, and MASP-2), or fragments thereof may be changed (e.g., increased or decreased) relative to a reference level. Appropriate levels for biomarkers associated with pneumonia are known in the art. Exemplary, non-limiting levels of biomarkers associated with pneumonia (e.g., CAP or sCAP), which may be indicative of the presence and/or severity of pneumonia, are provided by Seligman et al., Clinics 67(11):1321-1325, 2012 and Mira et al., Crit. Care. 12(Suppl. 6):S5, 2008, which are incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. Levels of lαlps associated with sepsis whose cause of sepsis is CAP are provided by Opal et al., Crit. Care Med. 2007; 35(2); 387-392, which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. For example, the level of PCT in healthy patients is usually undetectable or low, and is typically less than 0.1 ng/ml in serum. The level of PCT associated with pneumonia may be, for example, greater than about 0.1 ng/ml, e.g., from about 0.1 ng/ml to about 2 ng/ml. In other cases, the level of PCT may be greater than about 2 ng/ml (e.g., about 2 ng/ml, about 3 ng/ml, about 4 ng/ml, about 5 ng/ml, about 10 ng/ml, or greater). The level of CRP in healthy patients is typically less than about 3 mg/L. In some instances, the level of CRP associated with pneumonia may be greater than about 10 mg/L (e.g., about 10 mg/L, about 11 mg/L, about 12 mg/L, about 13 mg/L, about 14 mg/L, about 15 mg/L, or greater). The level of a biomarker for pneumonia can be measured in any suitable biological sample, for example, blood (e.g., whole blood, plasma, or serum), bronchial lavage fluid (BALF), sputum, urine, cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), a tissue biopsy, and the like. Any of the preceding levels may be a serum level.

The methods of the invention can also include monitoring the progress of a subject being treated with lαlps (e.g., lαl and/or Pαl) by determining the pre-treatment level of lαlps (e.g., lαl and/or Pαl); administering a therapeutically effective amount of lαlps (e.g., lαl and/or Pαl), a composition thereof, and/or a secondary treatment to the subject; and determining the level of lαlps (e.g., lαl and/or Pαl) in the subject after an initial period of treatment with the lαlps. An increase in the level of lαlps in the subject following treatment with lαlps (e.g., lαl and/or Pαl) indicates that the subject is likely to have a favorable clinical response to treatment with lαlps, a composition thereof, or a combination thereof with a secondary treatment. A decrease or plateau in a detectable level of lαlps (e.g., lαl and/or Pαl) can indicate that a subject may benefit from continued administration of lαlps or an increase in the dosage of lαlps administered to the subject.

The progress of a patient following treatment with an lαlp(s), or a co-administered secondary treatment, can be monitored and assessed by measuring the level of one or more biomarkers, e.g., inflammatory factors (e.g., TNF-alpha, IL-6, C5a, damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs), ERK, NF-κB levels, increased IL-10, and/or decreased serine proteases) as indicators of treatment efficacy. The administration of lαlps (e.g., lαl and/or Pαl) to the subject may reduce the physiological response of the subject to cytokines (e.g., TNF-alpha) or free radicals. lαlps (e.g., lαl and Pαl) may down-regulate pro-inflammatory mediators such as TNF-alpha and/or IL-6; up-regulate anti-inflammatory mediators such as IL-10; inhibit serine proteases such as trypsin, chymotrypsin, elastase, plasmin, granzyme K, preprotein convertase furin; block complement activation (e.g., C5a); block endogenous damage signals (DAMPs) such as extracellular histones; inhibit endothelial inflammation such as that caused by ERK/NF-κB pathways; and/or bind virtonectin and/or other matrix proteins in extracellular matrix, thereby promoting epithelial and/or endothelial repair via cellular proliferation and/or migration; and/or downregulation of adhesion factors such as ICAM, VCAM, and selectins, thereby reducing extravasation of immune cells into the tissues. Reductions in the level of one or more of the inflammatory factors (e.g., TNF-alpha, IL-6, C5a, DMAPs, ERK, and NF-κB levels) and/or increases in the level of IL-10, relative to an untreated ARDS and/or pneumonia patient, indicate treatment efficacy with the lαlps (s), or a co-administered secondary treatment.

Any of the methods described herein can further involve reducing inflammation and fluid in lung tissue and alveolar lung tissue.

lαlps (e.g., lαl and Pαl) can reach sites of tissue injury via extravasation, and modify inflammatory and reparative processes when administered to the subject, such as restoring columnar epithelial structure and reducing abnormal nuclei in the airways of the lung.

In some instances, the methods of the invention reduce the need for ventilation of the subject, for example, by days (e.g., 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, or 7 days), weeks (e.g., 1, 2, 3, or 4 weeks), or months (e.g., 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, or 12 months) relative to untreated patients.

The methods of the invention described above can include the administration of lαl and Pαl as the lαlps. In addition, one or more of bikunin, H4, and H5 can be administered alone or in combination with lαl and Pαl as the lαlps.

Administration

lαlps (e.g., lαl and/or Pαl), or a composition containing such proteins and a pharmaceutically acceptable excipient, diluent, or carrier, can be administered to the subject by any suitable route, including, for example, parenterally, by inhalation spray, topically, nasally, buccally, by oral administration, inhalation, suppository, or by injection. Administration by injection includes, for example, intravenous, intraperitoneal, subcutaneous, intracutaneous, intramuscular, intraarticular, intraarterial, intrasynovial, intrasternal, intrathecal, intralesional and intracranial injection. If the patient is hospitalized, the preferred method of administration is by intravenous injection.

The lαlps (e.g., lαl and/or Pαl) or the composition containing such proteins may be administered to the subject one or more times every 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 12, or 24 hours; one or more times every 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, or 6 days; or one or more times every 1, 2, 3, or 4 weeks. In other cases, the lαlps (e.g., lαl and/or Pαl) or the composition containing such proteins are administered as a continuous infusion.

The compositions may be administered to the subject at least 10, 15, 20, 30, 60, or 120 minutes before an insult or injury to the lungs as described herein (e.g., a surgery or use of a ventilator). In other instances, the compositions may be administered to the subject at least 10, 15, 20, 30, 60, or 120 minutes after an insult or injury to the lungs as described herein (e.g., a surgery or use of a ventilator).

The compositions may also be administered upon diagnosis of ARDS or pneumonia or development of complications from ARDS or pneumonia (e.g., sepsis (e.g., infectious sepsis or sterile sepsis) or organ failure.

Dosages

A pharmaceutically acceptable composition of the invention includes lαlps (e.g., lαl and/or Pαl) in a dosage known in the art (see, e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 7,932,365, International Patent Application Publication No. WO2009154695, and U.S. Patent Application Publication No. 2009/0190194, each of which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety). For example, compositions of the invention can be administered in a dosage ranging from about 1 mg/kg to 50 mg/kg, preferably dosages between 10 mg/kg and 30 mg/kg. The dose can be administered one or more times every 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 12, or 24 hours, every 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, or 6, days, or every 1, 2, 3, or 4 weeks, or as needed. Lower or higher doses than those recited above may be advantageous. Specific dosage and treatment regimens for any particular subject will depend upon a variety of factors, including the activity of the specific composition employed, the age, body weight, general health status, sex, diet, time of administration, rate of excretion, drug combination, the severity and course of the disease (e.g., the patient's condition and/or symptoms), the subject's disposition to the disease, and the judgment of the treating medical professional (e.g., the physician). The lαlps may be combined with a carrier material to produce a single dosage form.

Upon improvement of the patient's condition, a maintenance dose of an lαlp composition or combination therapy may be administered, if necessary. Subsequently, the dosage or frequency of administration, or both, may be reduced, as a function of the reduction in symptoms, to a level at which the improved condition is retained. When the symptoms have been alleviated to a desired level, treatment may cease. Subjects may, however, require intermittent treatment on a long-term basis upon any recurrence of disease symptoms. Improvement of the condition may also be judged based upon the level of lαl in a biological sample derived from the patient (e.g., blood (e.g., whole blood, plasma, or serum), bronchial lavage fluid (BALF), sputum, urine, cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), or a tissue biopsy (e.g., a liver biopsy).

Formulations

The invention provides methods of treating or reducing the likelihood of developing ARDS or pneumonia that involve administration of lαlps (e.g., lαl and/or Pαl), a composition that includes lαlps (e.g., lαl and/or Pαl) and a pharmaceutically acceptable excipient, carrier, or diluent, or such compositions combined with a secondary treatment, as is described herein. The compositions can be formulated as a solid or a liquid. The compositions can be formulated for administration by any suitable means including those described herein.

Injectable forms of lαlps for administration are particularly preferred. lαlps and compositions containing the same may be formulated for intravenous, intraperitoneal, subcutaneous, intracutaneous, intramuscular, intraarticular, intraarterial, intrasynovial, intrasternal, intrathecal, intralesional and intracranial injection or infusion techniques. The pharmaceutical compositions may be in the form of a sterile injectable preparation, for example, as a sterile injectable aqueous or oleaginous suspension. This suspension may be formulated according to techniques known in the art using suitable dispersing or wetting agents (such as, for example, TWEEN® 80) and suspending agents. The sterile injectable preparation may also be a sterile injectable solution or suspension in a non-toxic parenterally acceptable diluent or solvent. Among the acceptable vehicles and solvents that may be employed are mannitol, water, Ringer's solution and isotonic sodium chloride solution. In addition, sterile, fixed oils are conventionally employed as a solvent or suspending medium. For this purpose, any bland fixed oil may be employed including synthetic mono- or diglycerides. Fatty acids, such as oleic acid and its glyceride derivatives are useful in the preparation of injectables, as are natural pharmaceutically-acceptable oils, such as olive oil or castor oil, especially in their polyoxyethylated versions. These oil solutions or suspensions may also contain a long-chain alcohol diluent or dispersant, or carboxymethyl cellulose or similar dispersing agents which are commonly used in the formulation of pharmaceutically acceptable dosage forms such as emulsions and or suspensions. Other commonly used surfactants such as the TWEEN® or SPAN® ranges and/or other similar emulsifying agents or bioavailability enhancers which are commonly used in the manufacture of pharmaceutically acceptable solid, liquid, or other dosage forms may also be used for the purposes of formulation.

The compositions may also be formulated for oral administration in any orally acceptable dosage form including, but not limited to, capsules, tablets, emulsions and aqueous suspensions, dispersions and solutions. For the case of tablets for oral use, carriers which are commonly used include lactose and com starch. Lubricating agents, such as magnesium stearate, are also typically added. For oral administration in a capsule form, useful diluents include lactose and dried corn starch. When aqueous suspensions and/or emulsions are administered orally, the active ingredient may be suspended or dissolved in an oily phase combined with emulsifying and/or suspending agents. If desired, certain sweetening and/or flavoring and/or coloring agents may be added.

For preparing solid compositions, such as tablets, the lαlps may be mixed with a pharmaceutical excipient to form a solid pre-formulation composition containing a homogeneous mixture. When referring to these pre-formulation compositions as homogeneous, the active ingredient is typically dispersed evenly throughout the composition so that the composition can be readily subdivided into equally effective unit dosage forms such as tablets, pills and capsules. This solid pre-formulation can then be subdivided into unit dosage forms of the type described above containing from, for example, 1 mg/kg to about 50 mg/kg of lαlps (e.g., lαl and/or Pαl). The solid pre-formulation can contain about 10 mg/kg to 30 mg/kg of lαlps (e.g., lαl and/or Pαl).

The tablets or pills of the present invention can be coated or otherwise compounded to provide a dosage form affording the advantage of prolonged action. For example, the tablet or pill can comprise an inner dosage and an outer dosage component, the latter being in the form of an envelope over the former. The two components can be separated by an enteric layer which serves to resist disintegration in the stomach and permit the inner component to pass intact into the duodenum or to be delayed in release. A variety of materials can be used for such enteric layers or coatings, such materials including a number of polymeric acids and mixtures of polymeric acids with such materials as shellac, cetyl alcohol, and cellulose acetate.

The liquid forms in which the compositions can be incorporated for administration orally or by injection include aqueous solutions, suitably flavored syrups, aqueous or oil suspensions, and flavored emulsions with edible oils such as cottonseed oil, sesame oil, coconut oil, or peanut oil, as well as elixirs and similar pharmaceutical vehicles.

Compositions for inhalation or insufflation include solutions and suspensions in pharmaceutically acceptable aqueous or organic solvents, or mixtures thereof, and powders. The liquid or solid compositions may contain suitable pharmaceutically acceptable excipients as described herein and/or known in the art. The compositions can be administered by the oral or nasal respiratory route for local or systemic effect. Compositions can be nebulized by use of inert gases. Nebulized solutions may be breathed directly from the nebulizing device or the nebulizing device can be attached to a face masks tent, or intermittent positive pressure breathing machine. Solution, suspension, or powder compositions can be administered orally or nasally from devices which deliver the formulation in an appropriate manner. Such compositions are prepared according to techniques well-known in the art of pharmaceutical formulation and may be prepared as solutions in saline, employing benzyl alcohol or other suitable preservatives, absorption promoters to enhance bioavailability, fluorocarbons, and/or other solubilizing or dispersing agents known in the art.

Topical administration of the compositions is useful when the desired treatment involves areas or organs readily accessible by topical application. For application topically to the skin, the composition should be formulated with a suitable ointment containing the active components suspended or dissolved in a carrier. Carriers for topical administration of the compositions of this invention include, but are not limited to mineral oil, liquid petroleum, white petroleum, propylene glycol, polyoxyethylenepolyoxypropylene composition, emulsifying wax and water. Alternatively, the pharmaceutical composition can be formulated with a suitable lotion or cream containing the active composition suspended or dissolved in a carrier with suitable emulsifying agents. Suitable carriers include, but are not limited to, mineral oil, sorbitan monostearate, polysorbate 60, cetyl esters wax, cetearyl alcohol, 2-octyldodecanol, benzyl alcohol, and water.

The pharmaceutical compositions may also be administered in the form of suppositories for rectal administration. These compositions can be prepared by mixing a composition of this invention with a suitable non-irritating excipient which is solid at room temperature but liquid at the rectal temperature and therefore will melt in the rectum to release the active components. Such materials include, but are not limited to, cocoa butter, beeswax and polyethylene glycols. Topically-transdermal patches are also included in this invention.

The compositions administered to a subject can be in the form of one or more of the pharmaceutical compositions described above. These compositions can be sterilized by conventional sterilization techniques or may be sterile filtered. Aqueous solutions can be packaged for use as is, or lyophilized, the lyophilized preparation being combined with a sterile aqueous carrier prior to administration.

Pharmaceutically acceptable excipient, carriers, and diluents that may be used in the compositions may include, but are not limited to, ion exchangers, alumina, aluminum stearate, lecithin, self-emulsifying drug delivery systems (SEDDS) such as da-tocopherol polyethyleneglycol 1000 succinate, surfactants used in pharmaceutical dosage forms such as TWEEN® surfactants or other similar polymeric delivery matrices, serum proteins such as human serum albumin, buffer substances such as phosphates, glycine, sorbic acid, potassium sorbate, partial glyceride mixtures of saturated vegetable fatty acids, water, salts or electrolytes, such as protamine sulfate, disodium hydrogen phosphate, potassium hydrogen phosphate, sodium chloride, zinc salts, colloidal silica, magnesium trisilicate, polyvinyl pyrrolidone, cellulose-based substances, polyethylene glycol, sodium carboxymethylcellulose, polyacrylates, waxes, polyethylene-polyoxypropylene-block polymers, polyethylene glycol and wool fat.

Other delivery systems can include time-release, delayed release or sustained release delivery systems. Such systems can avoid repeated administrations of compositions of the invention, increasing convenience to the subject and the physician. Many types of release delivery systems are available and known to those of ordinary skill in the art. They include polymer base systems such as polylactides (U.S. Pat. No. 3,773,919; European Patent No. 58,481), poly(lactide-glycolide), copolyoxalates, polycaprolactones, polyesteramides, polyorthoesters, polyhydroxybutyric acids, such as poly-D-(-)-3-hydroxybutyric acid (European Patent No. 133, 988), copolymers of L-glutamic acid and gamma-ethyl-L-glutamate (Sidman, K. R. et al., Biopolymers 22: 547-556), poly (2-hydroxyethyl methacrylate) or ethylene vinyl acetate (Langer, R. et al., J. Biomed. Mater. Res. 15:267-277; Langer, R. Chem. Tech. 12:98-105), and polyanhydrides.

Other examples of sustained-release compositions include semi-permeable polymer matrices in the form of shaped articles, e.g., films, or microcapsules. Delivery systems also include non-polymer systems that are: lipids including sterols such as cholesterol, cholesterol esters and fatty acids or neutral fats such as mono- di- and tri-glycerides; hydrogel release systems such as biologically-derived bioresorbable hydrogel (i.e., chitin hydrogels or chitosan hydrogels); sylastic systems; peptide based systems; wax coatings; compressed tablets using conventional binders and excipients; partially fused implants; and the like. Specific examples include, but are not limited to: (a) erosional systems in which the agent is contained in a form within a matrix such as those described in U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,452,775, 4,667,014, 4,748,034 and 5,239,660 and (b) diffusional systems in which an active component permeates at a controlled rate from a polymer such as described in U.S. Pat. Nos. 3,832,253, and 3,854,480.

The proportion or concentration of lαlps (e.g., lαl and/or Pαl) in the composition can vary depending upon a number of factors including dosage, chemical characteristics (e.g., hydrophobicity), and the route of administration. The lαlps (e.g., lαl and/or Pαl) may be present in the composition in a physiological proportion. Physiological proportions may be, for example, the proportions found in a person or animal that is healthy and/or the ratio of lαl and Pαl that appears naturally in human plasma. Physiological proportions are typically from between about 60% to about 80% lαl and between about 20% to about 40% Pαl. However, it is to be understood that physiological proportions may vary from these ranges, for example, due to normal variation in genetic makeup of subjects.

lαlps (e.g., lαl and/or Pαl) or compositions thereof can have a half-life of, for example, greater than about 1, 1.5, 2, 2.5, 3, 3.5, 4, 4.5, 5, 7.5, or 10 hours. lαlps (e.g., lαl and/or Pαl) or compositions thereof can have a half-life of greater than about 5 hours or, preferably, greater than about 10 hours. Longer half-lives are preferred, for example, because fewer doses are required to be administered to a subject over time.

The pH of the compositions typically will be between about 3 and about 11, for example, between about 5 and 9, between about 6 and 7, or between about 7 and 8. The use of certain of the foregoing excipients, carriers, or stabilizers may result in the formation of pharmaceutical salts.

Purity of Inter-alpha Inhibitor Proteins and Methods of Manufacture

lαlps (e.g., lαl and/or Pαl) for use in the compositions of the invention can be obtained from, e.g., human plasma and blood by methods known in the art (See, e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 9,139,641, which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety).

In part, the lαlps can be obtained at a purity of 80% to 100% (e.g., about 80%, about 85%, about 90%, about 95%, about 96%, about 97%, about 98%, about 99%, or about 100%) from a natural source (e.g., blood) and used to prepare a composition of the invention (see, e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 7,932,365, which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety).

The compositions may include any suitable lαlp, for example, lαl, Pαl, a heavy chain, a light chain, or any combination thereof. For example, the composition may include lαl, Pαl, and/or bikunin. In some cases, the composition may include lαl and Pαl. The heavy chain can be H1, H2, H3, H4, or H5. The light chain can be bikunin.

Combination Therapies

The methods of the invention also include administering or co-administering a second treatment in addition to lαlps (e.g., lαl and/or Pαl) or a composition thereof for the treatment of ARDS or pneumonia. For example, the second treatment may include administering to the subject an antibiotic agent, an antiviral agent, an antifungal agent, an antiparasitic agent, an anti-inflammatory agent, a bronchodilator agent, a complement inhibitor, a vasopressor, a sedative, or mechanical ventilation.

When the method includes administering a combination of lαlps (e.g., lαl and/or Pαl), or a composition including lαlps (e.g., lαl and/or Pαl) and a pharmaceutically acceptable excipient, diluent, or carrier, and one or more second treatment agents, each agent is present at a dosage level of between about 1 to 100%, and more preferably between about 5 to 95%, of the dosage normally administered in a monotherapy regimen. The agent(s) of the second treatment may be administered separately, as part of a multiple dose regimen, from the lαlps (e.g., lαl and/or Pαl) or the composition thereof. The lαlps and agent(s) of the second treatment can be administered simultaneously or sequentially in any order. Alternatively, the agent(s) of the second treatment may be part of a single dosage form, e.g., mixed together with the lαlps (e.g., lαl and/or Pαl) in a single composition.

Exemplary agents that can be administered in combination with lαlps (e.g., lαl and/or Pαl) or compositions thereof are discussed below.

Antibiotic Agents

The second treatment may include an antibiotic agent that is used to treat a bacterial infection. Non-limiting examples of antibiotic agents include amoxicillin, penicillin, doxycycline, clarithromycin, benzylpenicillin, azithromycin, daptomycin, linezolid, levofloxacin, moxifloxacin, gatifloxcin, gentamicin, macrolides, cephalosporins, azithromycin, ciprofloxacin, cefuroxime, amoxillin-potassium clavulanate, erythromycin, sulfamethoxazole-trimethoprim, doxycycline monohydrate, cefepime, ampicillin, cefpodoxime, ceftriaxone, cefazolin, erythromycin ethylsuccinate, meropenem, piperacillin-tazobactam, amikacin, erythromycin stearate, cefepime in dextrose, doxycycline hyclate, ampicillin-sulbactam, ceftazidime, gemifloxacin, gentamicin sulfate, erythromycin lactobionate, imipenem-cilastatin, cefoxitin, cefditoren pivoxil, ertapenem, doxycycline-benzoyl peroxide, ampicillin-sulbactam, meropenem, cefuroxime, cefotetan, piperacillin-tazobactam, broad-spectrum fluoroquinolones (which may be used, for example, to treat pneumonia caused by atypical pathogens such as Mycoplasma pneumoniae or Chlamydophila pneumoniae), and others known in the art.

Antiviral Agents

The second treatment may include an antiviral agent that is used to treat a viral infection. Non-limiting examples of antiviral agents include zanamivir, oseltamivir, permivir, ribavirin, acyclovir, ganciclovir, foscarnet, cidofovir, and others known in the art.

Antifungal Agents

The second treatment may include an antifungal agent that is used to treat a fungal infection. Non-limiting examples of antifungal agents include amphotericin, caspofungin, voriconazole, itraconazole, posaconazole, fluconazole, flucytosine, and others known in the art.

Antiparasitic Agents

The second treatment may include an antiparastic agent that is used to treat a parasitic infection (e.g., a parasitic protozoan infection. Non-limiting examples of antiparasitic agents include nitazoxanide, melarsoprol, eflornithine, metronidazole, tinidazole, miltefosine, mebendazole, pyrantel pamoate, thiabendazole, diethylcarbamazine, ivermectin, albendazole, praziquantel, rifampin, and others known in the art.

Anti-Inflammatory Agents

The second treatment may include an anti-inflammatory agent that is used to treat or reduce inflammation. Non-limiting examples of anti-inflammatory agents include corticosteroids, statins, steroids, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, glucocorticoids, and others known the art.

Brochodilators

The second treatment may include a bronchodilator that is used to relax the bronchial muscles allowing airways to be larger and air to pass through the lungs. Non-limiting examples of bronchodilators include beta 2 agonists, xanthines, ipratropium, oxitropium, muscarinic receptor antagonists, ipratropium, oxitropium, theophylline, theobromine, caffeine, salbutamol, isoproterenol, albuterol, levalburerol, pirbuterol, metaproterenol, terbutaline, salmeterol, formoterol, and others known in the art.

Vasopressors

The second treatment may include a vasopressor that causes vasoconstriction and/or an increase in blood pressure. Non-limiting examples of vasopressors include epinephrine, isoproterenol, phenylephrine, norepinephrine, dobutamine, ephedrine, droxidopa, and others known in the art.

Sedatives

The second treatment may include a sedative. Non-limiting examples of sedatives include propofol, diprivan, morphine, fentanyl, midazolam, lorazepam, precede, infumorph, dexmedetomidine, alfentanil, and others known in the art.

Complement Inhibitors

The second treatment may include an inhibitor of complement activation. The composition may inhibit activation of one or more complement components such as C1, C2, C3 (e.g., C3a and C3b), C4 (e.g., C4b), C5 (e.g., C5a and C5b), C6, C7, C8, C9, membrane attack complex, Factor B, Factor D, MASP-1, and MASP-2, or fragments thereof. The complement inhibitors may include protease inhibitors such as C1-INH and Rhucin/rhC11 NH, soluble complement regulators such as sCR1/TP10, CAB-2/MLN-2222, therapeutic antibodies such as eculizumab/SOLIRIS®, Pexelizumna, ofatumumab, complement component inhibitors such as compstatin, receptor antagonists such as PMX-53 and rhMBL.

Assays

Therapeutic efficacy can optionally be assayed by measuring, for example, the biological function of the treated tissue or organ (e.g., lung). Such methods are standard in the art. For example, lung function is assayed using spirometry, lung volume, and diffusion capacity tests. Other methods for assaying organ function are known to the skilled artisan and are described,

The methods for treating a subject for ARDS or pneumonia can include the steps of determining the pre-treatment levels of lαlps (e.g., lαl and/or Pαl); and administering a therapeutically effective amount of lαlps to the subject. Pre-treatment levels of lαlps (e.g., lαl and/or Pαl) are the levels of the proteins in the subject prior to the first administration of lαlps (e.g., lαl and/or Pαl). Post-treatment levels are the levels of lαlps (e.g., lαl and/or Pαl) measured after administration of lαlps. The methods include determining the post-treatment levels of one or more of lαl and Pαl after an initial period of treatment with lαl and/or Pαl. A modulation in the level of lαl and/or Pαl is an indication that the treatment is producing a favorable clinical response.

The level of lαlps (e.g., lαl and/or Pαl) or other biomarkers described herein may be determined, for example, by immunological methods. For example, lαl and/or Pαl complexes and/or other biomarkers can be detected and/or measured by a variety of detection methods including, for example, gas phase ion spectrometry methods, optical methods, electrochemical methods, atomic force microscopy, radio frequency methods, surface plasmon resonance, ellipsometry, and immunological methods.

Immune cells can be measured using any suitable method, for example, blood tests (e.g., microscopic analysis), flow cytometry, and others known in the art.

An immunoassay can be used to detect and analyze lαlps (e.g., lαl and Pαl) and/or other biomarker proteins in a sample. This method can include: (a) providing an antibody that specifically binds to lαl and/or Pαl; (b) contacting a sample with the antibody; and (c) detecting the presence of a complex of the antibody bound to the proteins in the sample. Suitable antibodies for use of the invention include, MAb 69.31, MAb 69.26, anti-lαlp polyclonal antibody, and anti-bikunin monoclonal or polyclonal antibody.

The following examples are intended to illustrate, rather than limit, the invention.

EXAMPLES Example 1. Treatment of Patient Having Pneumonia

A 65-year old male presents to the hospital. The patient explains that he cannot breathe very well, his breaths are short and rapid, and he feels like he is gasping for air. The patient further complains of sharp chest pain and coughing. Upon examination, the clinician notes that the patient has diminished vital signs, a fever, and bluish coloring of his nail beds. The clinician also listens to the patient's lungs (e.g., using a stethoscope) while the patient inhales and exhales. The clinician hears crackles and other noises in the lungs. At this point, the patient is admitted to the hospital for suspected pneumonia, put on antibiotics, and then is sent for a chest X-ray. Upon examination of the patient's X-ray, the clinician confirms the initial diagnosis of pneumonia. The clinician also may order laboratory studies such as a blood culture, which may take 48 hours for the first read and 5 days for the full read. The levels of lαlps (e.g., lαl and/or Pαl) in a biological sample derived from the patient (e.g., plasma) can also be determined. In this example, the level of lαlps is low, and a therapy that includes lαlps (e.g., lαl and/or Pαl) is selected for the patient. In other examples, the patient's level of lαl proteins is normal (or even elevated), but lαlps may still be selected for the patient. If warranted by the patient's CURB-65 score, the patient can be sent to the intensive care unit (ICU).

To treat the pneumonia, the patient will be administered a therapeutically effective dose of lαlps (e.g., lαl and/or Pαl). The effective dose that will be administered intravenously to the patient will be between 1 mg/kg to 50 mg/kg (e.g., 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, or 50 mg/kg), preferably between 10 mg/kg to 30 mg/kg. The patient will be further treated with a secondary treatment containing one or more antibiotic agents such as amoxicillin, penicillin, doxycycline, clarithromycin, benzylpenicillin, azithromycin, gentamicin, macrolides, or cephalosporins. The patient will be administered the composition one or more times every 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 12, or 24 hours at the beginning of his therapy. As the patient progresses, the frequency of the therapy may decrease to one or more times every 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, or 6, days, or one or more times every 1, 2, 3, or 4 weeks. The patient will be provided with ventilation assistance should he have trouble breathing by himself.

Example 2. Treatment of Patient Having Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disorder

A 60 year old female patient suffering from chronic obstructive pulmonary disorder is scheduled to undergo a lung transplant. In preparation for her surgery, the patient is prescribed 5 mg/kg of lαlps (such as lαl and/or Pαl) to be administered twice a day, every day for a week prior to the surgery.

Example 3. Treatment of Patient Having Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome

A 65-year old male who has aspirated stomach contents presents to the hospital with diminished vital signs. Upon examination, the clinician notes that the patient has extreme shortness of breath, labored breathing, cough, and fever. The clinician orders a chest X-ray and the patient's chest imaging shows the presence of extensive bilateral infiltrates. The patient is diagnosed with acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), which is confirmed by additional laboratory tests measuring the patient's PaO₂/FiO₂ levels, which is <200 mmHg.

The patient will be administered a therapeutically effective dose of lαlps (e.g., lαl and/or Pαl). The effective dose that will be administered intravenously to the patient will be between 1 mg/kg to 50 mg/kg, preferably between 5 mg/kg to 15 mg/kg (e.g., 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, or 15 mg/kg). The patient will be administered the composition one or more times every 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 12, or 24 hours at the beginning of his therapy. As the patient progresses, the frequency of the therapy may decrease to one or more times every 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, or 6, days, or one or more times every 1, 2, 3, or 4 weeks. The patient will be provided with ventilation assistance should he have trouble breathing by himself.

OTHER EMBODIMENTS

All publications, patents, and patent applications mentioned in the above specification are hereby incorporated by reference to the same extent as if each individual publication, patent or patent application was specifically and individually indicated to be incorporated by reference in its entirety. Various modifications and variations of the described methods, pharmaceutical compositions, and kits of the invention will be apparent to those skilled in the art without departing from the scope and spirit of the invention. Although the invention has been described in connection with specific embodiments, it will be understood that it is capable of further modifications and that the invention as claimed should not be unduly limited to such specific embodiments. Indeed, various modifications of the described modes for carrying out the invention that are obvious to those skilled in the art are intended to be within the scope of the invention. This application is intended to cover any variations, uses, or adaptations of the invention following, in general, the principles of the invention and including such departures from the present disclosure come within known customary practice within the art to which the invention pertains and may be applied to the essential features herein before set forth. 

1. A method of treating or reducing the likelihood of developing acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) or pneumonia in a subject in need thereof comprising administering to the subject inter-alpha inhibitor proteins (lαlps).
 2. The method of claim 1, wherein the lαlps comprise lαl, Pαl, a heavy chain, a light chain, or a combination thereof.
 3. The method of claim 2, wherein the lαlps comprise lαl Pαl, and/or bikunin.
 4. The method of claim 2, wherein the heavy chain is selected from the group consisting of H1, H2, H3, H4, and H5.
 5. The method of claim 2, wherein the light chain is bikunin.
 6. The method of any one of claims 1-5, wherein the ARDS or the pneumonia is caused by an infection caused by bacteria.
 7. The method of claim 6, wherein the bacteria are antibiotic resistant bacteria.
 8. The method of any one of claims 1-7, wherein the method extends a treatment period prior to development of sepsis or organ failure in the subject, relative to an untreated subject.
 9. The method of any one of claims 1 to 8, wherein the method comprises treating one or more symptoms of the ARDS comprising mild, moderate or severe hypoxemia as determined by Partial Pressure of arterial oxygen/Fraction of inspired oxygen (PaO₂/FiO₂) or positive end-expiratory pressure (PEEP), bilateral opacities, respiratory failure, shortness of breath, labored breathing, cough, fever, increased heart rate, low blood pressure, confusion, extreme tiredness, rapid breathing, organ failure, chest pain, bluish coloring of nails or lips, an change in the level of one or more inflammatory markers, or need for mechanical ventilation.
 10. The method of claim 9, wherein the one or more inflammatory markers is selected from the group consisting of TNF-alpha, IL-6, C5a, DAMPs, ERK, NF-κB, IL-10, and a serine protease.
 11. The method of claim 9 or 10, wherein the change in the level of one or more inflammatory markers is an increase.
 12. The method of claim 9 or 10, wherein the change in the level of one or more inflammatory markers is a decrease.
 13. The method of any one of claims 1 to 12, wherein the subject has one or more symptoms of the ARDS comprising shortness of breath, cough, fever, rapid heart rate, low blood pressure, rapid breathing, chest pain, bluish coloring of nails, or bluish coloring of lips.
 14. The method of any one of claims 1 to 13, wherein the ARDS comprises acute respiratory failure (ARF).
 15. The method of any one of claims 1 to 14, wherein the ARDS results from sepsis, pneumonia, ventilation induced pneumonia, trauma, damage to the brain, a blood transfusion, babesiosis, lung contusion, lung transplant, aspiration of stomach contents, drug abuse, drug overdose, a burn, pancreatitis, near drowning, inhalation of chemical fumes, or administration of resuscitation fluid.
 16. The method of claim 15, wherein the chemical fumes are selected from the group consisting of smoke, phosgene, chlorine gas, acrolein, ammonia, ethylene oxide, formaldehyde, hydrogen chloride, hydrogen fluoride, hydrogen sulfide, methyl bromide, sodium azide, sulfur dioxide, cadmium fume, mercury fume, mustard gas, nickel carbonyl, oxides of nitrogen, ozone.
 17. The method of claim 15, wherein the ARDS results from sepsis.
 18. The method of claim 17, wherein the sepsis is infectious sepsis or sterile sepsis.
 19. The method of claim 15, wherein the resuscitation fluid comprises colloid solutions.
 20. The method of claim 19, wherein the colloid solution comprises hydroxyethyl starch solution.
 21. The method of claim 20, wherein the colloid solution comprises albumin.
 22. The method of claim 15, wherein the trauma is acidosis.
 23. The method of any one of claims 1 to 8, wherein the method comprises treating one or more symptoms of the pneumonia comprising symptoms included in the CRB-65 test, the CURB-65 test, or the pneumonia severity index (PSI), cough, fever, shaking chills, shortness of breath, wheezing, chest pain, headache, excessive sweating, clammy skin, loss of appetite, low energy, fatigue, confusion, muscle pain, muscle weakness, or inflammation.
 24. The method of any one of claims 1 to 8, and 23, wherein the subject has one or more symptoms of the pneumonia comprising cough, fever, shaking chills, shortness of breath, wheezing, chest pain, headache, excessive sweating, clammy skin, loss of appetite, low energy, fatigue, confusion, muscle pain, muscle weakness, or inflammation.
 25. The method of any one of claims 1 to 8, 23, and 24, wherein the pneumonia comprises hospital-acquired pneumonia (HAP), health care-associated pneumonia (HCAP), nursing home-acquired pneumonia (NHAP), ventilator-associated pneumonia (VAP), or community-acquired pneumonia (CAP).
 26. The method of claim 25, wherein the CAP is severe CAP (sCAP).
 27. The method of any one of claims 1 to 8 and 23 to 26, wherein the pneumonia results from an infection of lung tissue.
 28. The method of claim 27, wherein the infection is a bacterial infection, a viral infection, a fungal infection, a parasite infection, or an infection caused by another type of microorganism.
 29. The method of claim 28, wherein the bacterial infection is caused by an Enterobacteriaceae species (spp.), Streptococcus pneumoniae, Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus anthracis, Haemophilus influenzae, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Bordetella pertussis, Moraxella catarrhalis, Coxiella burnetii, Chlamydophila pneumoniae, a Legionella spp., or Mycoplasma pneumoniae.
 30. The method of claim 29, wherein the Staphylococcus aureus is methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA).
 31. The method of claim 29, wherein the Legionella species is Legionella pneumonophila.
 32. The method of claim 28, wherein the viral infection is caused by an influenza virus, parainfluenza, swine origin influenza, Respiratory syncytial virus, Human parainfluenza virus, an Adenovirus, a Metapneumovirus, Severe acute respiratory syndrome virus, herpes simplex virus (HSV), Varicella-zoster virus (VZV), measles virus, Rubella virus, Cytomegalovirus (CMV), smallpox virus, dengue virus, rhinovirus, bocavirus, or Middle East respiratory syndrome virus.
 33. The method of claim 32, wherein the influenza virus is an influenza virus A or an influenza virus B.
 34. The method of claim 28, wherein the fungal infection is caused by Histoplasma capsulatum, Coccidioides immitis, Coccidioides posadasii, Pneumocystis jirovecii, Blastomyces dermatitidis, Sporothrix schenckii, Cryptococcus neoformans, Cryptococcus gattii, Paracoccidioides brasiliensis, a Candida spp., an Aspergillus spp., or a Mucor spp.
 35. The method of any one of claims 9-13, 23, and 24, wherein the symptoms begin within 2 to 72 hours after a lung insult.
 36. The method of claim 35, wherein the lung insult is or is caused by sepsis, pneumonia, ventilation-induced pneumonia, trauma, damage to the brain, a blood transfusion, babesiosis, lung contusion, lung transplant, aspiration of stomach contents, drug abuse, drug overdose, a burn, pancreatitis, near drowning, inhalation of chemical fumes, lung transplant, a large volume of fluid used during post-trauma resuscitation, or infection of lung tissue.
 37. The method of claim 36, wherein the lung insult is or is caused by sepsis.
 38. The method of claim 37, wherein the sepsis is infectious sepsis or sterile sepsis.
 39. The method of claim 36, wherein the chemical fumes are selected from the group consisting of smoke, phosgene, acrolein, ammonia, ethylene oxide, formaldehyde, hydrogen chloride, hydrogen fluoride, hydrogen sulfide, methyl bromide, sodium azide, sulfur dioxide, cadmium fume, mercury fume, mustard gas, nickel carbonyl, oxides of nitrogen, ozone or chlorine gas.
 40. The method of any one of claims 1 to 39, wherein the method comprises reducing inflammation and/or promoting repair in lung tissue.
 41. The method of any one of claims 1 to 40, wherein the method comprises reducing fluid in lung tissue.
 42. The method of claim 41, wherein the lung tissue is alveolar lung tissue.
 43. The method of any one of claims 1 to 42, wherein the method comprises administering lαlps to the subject prior to development of sepsis in the subject.
 44. The method of any one of claims 1 to 43, wherein the method comprises administering lαlps to the subject prior to organ failure in the subject.
 45. The method of any one of claims 1 to 44, wherein the method comprises measuring the levels of lαlps in a biological sample derived from the subject prior to administration of the lαlps.
 46. The method of claim 45, wherein the method comprises measuring the levels of lαl, Pαl, a heavy chain, a light chain, or a combination thereof.
 47. The method of claim 46, wherein the method comprises measuring the levels of lαl and/or Pαl.
 48. The method of any one of claims 1-47, wherein the method comprises measuring the levels of histones or histone/lαl/Pαl complexes in a biological sample derived from the subject.
 49. The method of any one of claims 1 to 48, wherein the subject exhibits decreased levels of lαl and/or Pαl relative to a healthy subject.
 50. The method of any one of claims 1-49, wherein the subject exhibits increased levels of histones relative to a healthy subject.
 51. The method of any one of claims 1-50, wherein the subject exhibits increased levels of histone/lαl/Pαl complexes relative to an untreated subject.
 52. The method of any one of claims 1 to 51, wherein the method comprises restoring or exceeding the level of lαl and/or Pαl in the lung tissue of the subject to that of a healthy subject.
 53. The method of claim 49, 50, or 52, wherein the level of lαl and/or Pαl of a healthy subject is about 300 mg/L to about 1000 mg/L of circulating lαl and/or Pαl.
 54. The method of any one of claims 1 to 53, wherein the method comprises administering a single dose or multiple doses of the lαlps sufficient to restore or exceed the level of the lαlps in the lung tissue of the subject.
 55. The method of claim 54, wherein the single dose comprises about 1 mg/kg to about 50 mg/kg.
 56. The method of any one of claims 1 to 55, wherein the method further comprises measuring the level of one or more biomarkers associated with the ARDS or the pneumonia in a biological sample derived from the subject.
 57. The method of claim 56, wherein the one or more biomarkers comprise histone, histone/Pαl complexes, histone/lαl complexes, histone/lαl/Pαl complexes, TNF-α, IL-6, IL-10, IL-1, IL-1ra, IL1B, IL-8, MCP-1, MIP-2, CRP, PCT, cytokine-induced neutrophil chemoattractant/KC, UTI, a complement component, or fragments thereof.
 58. The method of claim 57, wherein the complement component is selected from the group consisting of C1, C2, C3, C3a, C3b, C4, C4b, C5, C5a, C5b, C6, C7, C8, C9, membrane attack complex, Factor B, Factor D, MASP-1, and MASP-2.
 59. The method of any one of claim 45, 48, or 56-58, wherein the biological sample derived from the subject is a blood sample, a urine sample, a sputum sample, or a bronchiolar lavage fluid sample.
 60. The method of claim 59, wherein the blood sample is whole blood, serum, plasma, or a combination thereof.
 61. The method of any one of claims 1 to 60, wherein the method further comprises administering a second treatment for the ARDS or the pneumonia.
 62. The method of claim 61, wherein the second treatment comprises one or more of an antibiotic, an antiviral agent, an antifungal agent, an antiparasitic agent, an anti-inflammatory agent, a bronchodilator, a vasopressor, a sedative, or mechanical ventilation.
 63. The method of any one of claims 1 to 62, wherein the method further comprises administering an inhibitor of complement activation.
 64. The method of any one of claims 1 to 63, wherein the method comprises neutralization of histones and extracellular histones.
 65. The method of any one of claims 1 to 64, wherein the administration of the lαlps inhibits activation of one or more complement components.
 66. The method of claim 65, wherein the complement components comprise C1, C2, C3, C3a, C3b, C4, C4b, C5, C5a, C5b, C6, C7, C8, C9, membrane attack complex, Factor B, Factor D, MASP-1, MASP-2, or fragments thereof.
 67. The method of any one of claims 1 to 66, wherein the administration of the lαlps reduces the likelihood of death or hospitalization time for the subject.
 68. The method of any one of claims 1 to 67, wherein the method comprises administering a composition comprising lαl and/or Pαl.
 69. The method of claim 68, wherein the composition comprises a dosage of lαl and/or Pαl of about 1 mg/kg to about 50 mg/kg.
 70. The method of claim 69, wherein the composition comprises a dosage of the lαl and/or Pαl proteins of about 5 mg/kg to about 15 mg/kg.
 71. The method of any one of claims 68 to 70, wherein the composition is administered to the subject one or more times every 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 12, or 24 hours, every 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, or 6, days, or every 1, 2, 3, or 4 weeks.
 72. The method of any one of claims 68 to 71, wherein the composition further comprises a pharmaceutically acceptable excipient, diluent, or carrier.
 73. The method of any one of claims 68 to 72, wherein the composition is formulated as a solid.
 74. The method of any one of claims 68 to 73, wherein the composition is formulated as a liquid.
 75. The method of any one of claims 68 to 74, wherein the composition is formulated for inhalation, insufflation, nebulization, or injection, or is formulated for oral, rectal, topical, or intraperitoneal administration.
 76. The method of claim 75, wherein the injection is intravenous injection.
 77. The method of any one of claims 68 to 76, wherein the composition has a half-life of greater than 1, 1.5, 2, 2.5, 3, 3.5, 4, 4.5, 5, 7.5, or 10 hours.
 78. The method of any one of claims 68 to 77, wherein the composition further comprises an antibiotic, an antiviral agent, an antifungal agent, an anti-parasitic agent, an anti-inflammatory agent, a vasopressor, a sedative, or a bronchodilator.
 79. The method of claim 78, wherein the antibiotic agent comprises amoxicillin, penicillin, doxycycline, clarithromycin, benzylpenicillin, azithromycin, daptomycin, linezolid, levofloxacin, moxifloxacin, gatifloxcin, gentamicin, macrolides, cephalosporins, azithromycin, ciprofloxacin, cefuroxime, amoxillin-potassium clavulanate, erythromycin, sulfamethoxazole-trimethoprim, doxycycline monohydrate, cefepime, ampicillin, cefpodoxime, ceftriaxone, cefazolin, erythromycin ethylsuccinate, meropenem, piperacillin-tazobactam, amikacin, erythromycin stearate, cefepime in dextrose, doxycycline hyclate, ampicillin-sulbactam, ceftazidime, gemifloxacin, gentamicin sulfate, erythromycin lactobionate, imipenem-cilastatin, cefoxitin, cefditoren pivoxil, ertapenem, doxycycline-benzoyl peroxide, ampicillin-sulbactam, meropenem, cefuroxime, cefotetan, or piperacillin-tazobactam.
 80. The method of claim 78, wherein the antiviral agent comprises zanamivir, oseltamivir, permivir, ribavirin, acyclovir, ganciclovir, foscarnet, or cidofovir.
 81. The method of claim 78, wherein the antifungal agent comprises amphotericin, caspofungin, voriconazole, itraconazole, posaconazole, fluconazole, or flucytosine.
 82. The method of claim 78, wherein the antiparasitic agent comprises nitazoxanide, melarsoprol, eflornithine, metronidazole, tinidazole, miltefosine, mebendazole, pyrantel pamoate, thiabendazole, diethylcarbamazine, ivermectin, albendazole, praziquantel, or rifampin.
 83. The method of claim 78, wherein the anti-inflammatory agent comprises a corticosteroid, a statin, a steroid, a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug, or a glucocorticoid.
 84. The method of claim 78, wherein the bronchodilator comprises a beta 2 agonist, a xanthine, ipratropium, oxitropium, a muscarinic receptor antagonist, ipratropium, oxitropium, theophylline, theobromine, caffeine, salbutamol, isoproterenol, albuterol, levalburerol, pirbuterol, metaproterenol, terbutaline, salmeterol, or formoterol.
 85. The method of claim 78, wherein the vasopressor comprises epinephrine, isoproterenol, phenylephrine, norepinephrine, dobutamine, ephedrine, or droxidopa.
 86. The method of claim 78, wherein the sedative comprises propofol, diprivan, morphine, fentanyl, midazolam, lorazepam, precede, infumorph, dexmedetomidine, or alfentanil.
 87. The method of any one of claims 1 to 86, wherein the composition further comprises an inhibitor of complement activation.
 88. The method of claim 87, wherein the composition inhibits activation of one or more complement components.
 89. The method of claim 88, wherein the complement components comprise C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, or fragments thereof.
 90. The method of any one of claims 1 to 89, wherein the subject is a mammal.
 91. The method of claim 90, wherein the mammal is human.
 92. The method of claim 91, wherein the human is an infant, a child, or an adult.
 93. The method of claim 90, wherein the mammal is a horse, a dog, a cat, a rabbit, or a pig.
 94. The method of any one of claims 1 to 93, wherein the subject has the ARDS or the pneumonia.
 95. The method of any one of claims 1 to 94, wherein the subject is not hospitalized.
 96. The method of any one of claims 1 to 94, wherein the subject is hospitalized.
 97. The method of claim 96, wherein the subject is in an intensive care unit.
 98. The method of any one of claims 1 to 97, wherein the subject requires ventilator-assisted breathing.
 99. The method of claim 98, wherein the ventilator-assisted breathing is mechanical ventilator-assisted breathing.
 100. The method of claim 99, wherein the mechanical ventilator-assisted breathing is invasive mechanical ventilator-assisted breathing.
 101. The method of claim 99, wherein the mechanical ventilator-assisted breathing is non-invasive mechanical ventilator-assisted breathing.
 102. The method of claim 99, wherein the mechanical ventilator-assisted breathing is pressure-limited or volume-limited.
 103. The method of any one of claims 1 to 102, wherein the subject has one or more organ failures.
 104. The method of claim 103, wherein the subject has two or more organ failures.
 105. The method of claim 104, wherein the subject has failures of the liver failure, kidney, intestine, heart, or brain.
 106. The method of any one of claims 103 to 105, wherein the subject has respiratory failure.
 107. The method of any one of claims 1 to 106, wherein the subject is identified as being in need of treatment using one or more of the following: chest imaging, arterial blood gas level, partial pressure of oxygen (PaO₂) levels, partial pressure of carbon dioxide (PaCO₂) levels, blood pH, pathogen specific test, or sputum evaluation.
 108. The method of claim 107, wherein the chest imaging is chest X-ray.
 109. The method of any one of claims 1 to 108, wherein the subject is identified as having mild, moderate or severe hypoxemia as determined by PaO₂/FiO₂ or positive end-expiratory pressure (PEEP).
 110. The method of any one of claims 1 to 109, wherein the subject is identified as having bilateral opacities consistent with edema.
 111. The method of any one of claims 1 to 110, wherein the subject is identified as having confusion, blood urea nitrogen being equal to one more than 20 mg/dL, respiratory rate being equal to or greater than 30 breaths per minute, systolic blood pressure being less than 90 mm Hg, diastolic blood pressure being equal to or less than 60 mm Hg, or is 65 or older.
 112. The method of any one of claims 1 to 111, wherein the subject is identified as being a nursing home resident; having neoplastic disease; having a history of liver, heart, cerebrovascular, or renal disease; being in a state of altered mental state; having a respiratory rate greater than or equal to 30 breaths per minute; having a systolic blood pressure above 90 mmHg, having a temperature above 35° C. or greater than or equal to 40° C.; having a pulse greater than or equal to 125/min; arterial pH less than 7.35; having a blood urea nitrogen greater than or equal to 30 ng/dL, sodium levels being greater than 130 mmol/L; having glucose levels greater than or equal to 250 mg/dl or greater than 13.8 mmol/liter); having hematocrit values being less than 30%; having a partial pressure of oxygen less than 60 mm Hg; or by the presence of pleural effusion on X-ray.
 113. The method of any one of claims 1 to 112, wherein the administration of the lαlps reduces the physiological response to inflammatory mediators such as cytokines, chemokines, complement, or histones.
 114. The method of any one of claims 1 to 113, wherein the subject has undergone a lung transplant.
 115. The method of any one of claims 1 to 114, wherein the subject is scheduled to undergo a lung transplant.
 116. The method of any one of claims 1 to 115, wherein the method comprises administering the lαlps to the subject at least 10, 15, 20, 30, 60, or 120 minutes after a lung insult.
 117. The method of claim 116, wherein the lung insult occurs as a result of radiation treatment, chemotherapy, or exposure to high altitude, swimming, or diving.
 118. The method of any one of claims 1 to 115, wherein the method comprises administering the lαlps to the subject at least 10, 15, 20, 30, 60, or 120 minutes before a lung insult.
 119. The method of claim 118, wherein the lung insult occurs as a result of surgery.
 120. The method of any one of claims 3 or 6 to 119, wherein the lαlps are administered at physiological proportions.
 121. The method of any one of claims 3 or 6 to 120, wherein the lαlps are at about 80% to about 100% purity.
 122. The method of claim 1, wherein the method extends a treatment period prior to development of sepsis or organ failure in the subject, relative to an untreated subject.
 123. The method of claim 1, wherein the method comprises treating one or more symptoms of the ARDS comprising mild, moderate or severe hypoxemia as determined by Partial Pressure of arterial oxygen/Fraction of inspired oxygen (PaO₂/FiO₂) or positive end-expiratory pressure (PEEP), bilateral opacities, respiratory failure, shortness of breath, labored breathing, cough, fever, increased heart rate, low blood pressure, confusion, extreme tiredness, rapid breathing, organ failure, chest pain, bluish coloring of nails or lips, an change in the level of one or more inflammatory markers, or need for mechanical ventilation.
 124. The method of claim 123, wherein the one or more inflammatory markers is selected from the group consisting of TNF-alpha, IL-6, C5a, DAMPs, ERK, NF-κB, IL-10, and a serine protease.
 125. The method of claim 123, wherein the change in the level of one or more inflammatory markers is an increase.
 126. The method of claim 124, wherein the change in the level of one or more inflammatory markers is an increase.
 127. The method of claim 123, wherein the change in the level of one or more inflammatory markers is a decrease.
 128. The method of claim 124, wherein the change in the level of one or more inflammatory markers is a decrease.
 129. The method of claim 1, wherein the subject has one or more symptoms of the ARDS comprising shortness of breath, cough, fever, rapid heart rate, low blood pressure, rapid breathing, chest pain, bluish coloring of nails, or bluish coloring of lips.
 130. The method of claim 1, wherein the ARDS comprises acute respiratory failure (ARF).
 131. The method of claim 1, wherein the ARDS results from sepsis, pneumonia, ventilation induced pneumonia, trauma, damage to the brain, a blood transfusion, babesiosis, lung contusion, lung transplant, aspiration of stomach contents, drug abuse, drug overdose, a burn, pancreatitis, near drowning, inhalation of chemical fumes, or administration of resuscitation fluid.
 132. The method of claim 131, wherein the chemical fumes are selected from the group consisting of smoke, phosgene, chlorine gas, acrolein, ammonia, ethylene oxide, formaldehyde, hydrogen chloride, hydrogen fluoride, hydrogen sulfide, methyl bromide, sodium azide, sulfur dioxide, cadmium fume, mercury fume, mustard gas, nickel carbonyl, oxides of nitrogen, ozone.
 133. The method of claim 131, wherein the ARDS results from sepsis.
 134. The method of claim 133, wherein the sepsis is infectious sepsis or sterile sepsis.
 135. The method of claim 131, wherein the resuscitation fluid comprises colloid solutions.
 136. The method of claim 135, wherein the colloid solution comprises hydroxyethyl starch solution.
 137. The method of claim 136, wherein the colloid solution comprises albumin.
 138. The method of claim 131, wherein the trauma is acidosis.
 139. The method of claim 1, wherein the method comprises treating one or more symptoms of the pneumonia comprising symptoms included in the CRB-65 test, the CURB-65 test, or the pneumonia severity index (PSI), cough, fever, shaking chills, shortness of breath, wheezing, chest pain, headache, excessive sweating, clammy skin, loss of appetite, low energy, fatigue, confusion, muscle pain, muscle weakness, or inflammation.
 140. The method of claim 1, wherein the subject has one or more symptoms of the pneumonia comprising cough, fever, shaking chills, shortness of breath, wheezing, chest pain, headache, excessive sweating, clammy skin, loss of appetite, low energy, fatigue, confusion, muscle pain, muscle weakness, or inflammation.
 141. The method of claim 1, wherein the pneumonia comprises hospital-acquired pneumonia (HAP), health care-associated pneumonia (HCAP), nursing home-acquired pneumonia (NHAP), ventilator-associated pneumonia (VAP), or community-acquired pneumonia (CAP).
 142. The method of claim 141, wherein the CAP is severe CAP (sCAP).
 143. The method of claim 1, wherein the pneumonia results from an infection of lung tissue.
 144. The method of claim 143, wherein the infection is a bacterial infection, a viral infection, a fungal infection, a parasite infection, or an infection caused by another type of microorganism.
 145. The method of claim 144, wherein the bacterial infection is caused by an Enterobacteriaceae species (spp.), Streptococcus pneumoniae, Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus anthracis, Haemophilus influenzae, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Bordetella pertussis, Moraxella catarrhalis, Coxiella burnetii, Chlamydophila pneumoniae, a Legionella spp., or Mycoplasma pneumoniae.
 146. The method of claim 145, wherein the Staphylococcus aureus is methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA).
 147. The method of claim 145, wherein the Legionella species is Legionella pneumonophila.
 148. The method of claim 144, wherein the viral infection is caused by an influenza virus, parainfluenza, swine origin influenza, Respiratory syncytial virus, Human parainfluenza virus, an Adenovirus, a Metapneumovirus, Severe acute respiratory syndrome virus, herpes simplex virus (HSV), Varicella-zoster virus (VZV), measles virus, Rubella virus, Cytomegalovirus (CMV), smallpox virus, dengue virus, rhinovirus, bocavirus, or Middle East respiratory syndrome virus.
 149. The method of claim 148, wherein the influenza virus is an influenza virus A or an influenza virus B.
 150. The method of claim 144, wherein the fungal infection is caused by Histoplasma capsulatum, Coccidioides immitis, Coccidioides posadasii, Pneumocystis jirovecii, Blastomyces dermatitidis, Sporothrix schenckii, Cryptococcus neoformans, Cryptococcus gattii, Paracoccidioides brasiliensis, a Candida spp., an Aspergillus spp., or a Mucor spp.
 151. The method of claim 9, wherein the symptoms begin within 2 to 72 hours after a lung insult.
 152. The method of claim 151, wherein the lung insult is or is caused by sepsis, pneumonia, ventilation-induced pneumonia, trauma, damage to the brain, a blood transfusion, babesiosis, lung contusion, lung transplant, aspiration of stomach contents, drug abuse, drug overdose, a burn, pancreatitis, near drowning, inhalation of chemical fumes, lung transplant, a large volume of fluid used during post-trauma resuscitation, or infection of lung tissue.
 153. The method of claim 152, wherein the lung insult is or is caused by sepsis.
 154. The method of claim 153, wherein the sepsis is infectious sepsis or sterile sepsis.
 155. The method of claim 152, wherein the chemical fumes are selected from the group consisting of smoke, phosgene, acrolein, ammonia, ethylene oxide, formaldehyde, hydrogen chloride, hydrogen fluoride, hydrogen sulfide, methyl bromide, sodium azide, sulfur dioxide, cadmium fume, mercury fume, mustard gas, nickel carbonyl, oxides of nitrogen, ozone or chlorine gas.
 156. The method of claim 1, wherein the method comprises reducing inflammation and/or promoting repair in lung tissue.
 157. The method of claim 1, wherein the method comprises reducing fluid in lung tissue.
 158. The method of claim 157, wherein the lung tissue is alveolar lung tissue.
 159. The method of claim 1, wherein the method comprises administering lαlps to the subject prior to development of sepsis in the subject.
 160. The method of claim 1, wherein the method comprises administering lαlps to the subject prior to organ failure in the subject.
 161. The method of claim 1, wherein the method comprises measuring the levels of lαlps in a biological sample derived from the subject prior to administration of the lαlps.
 162. The method of claim 161, wherein the method comprises measuring the levels of lαl, Pαl, a heavy chain, a light chain, or a combination thereof.
 163. The method of claim 162, wherein the method comprises measuring the levels of lαl and/or Pαl.
 164. The method of claim 1, wherein the method comprises measuring the levels of histones or histone/lαl/Pαl complexes in a biological sample derived from the subject.
 165. The method of claim 1, wherein the subject exhibits decreased levels of lαl and/or Pαl relative to a healthy subject.
 166. The method of claim 1, wherein the subject exhibits increased levels of histones relative to a healthy subject.
 167. The method of claim 1, wherein the subject exhibits increased levels of histone/lαl/Pαl complexes relative to an untreated subject.
 168. The method of claim 1, wherein the method comprises restoring or exceeding the level of lαl and/or Pαl in the lung tissue of the subject to that of a healthy subject.
 169. The method of claim 165, wherein the level of lαl and/or Pαl of a healthy subject is about 300 mg/L to about 1000 mg/L of circulating lαl and/or Pαl.
 170. The method of claim 166, wherein the level of lαl and/or Pαl of a healthy subject is about 300 mg/L to about 1000 mg/L of circulating lαl and/or Pαl.
 171. The method of claim 168, wherein the level of lαl and/or Pαl of a healthy subject is about 300 mg/L to about 1000 mg/L of circulating lαl and/or Pαl.
 172. The method of claim 1, wherein the method comprises administering a single dose or multiple doses of the lαlps sufficient to restore or exceed the level of the lαlps in the lung tissue of the subject.
 173. The method of claim 172, wherein the single dose comprises about 1 mg/kg to about 50 mg/kg.
 174. The method of claim 1, wherein the method further comprises measuring the level of one or more biomarkers associated with the ARDS or the pneumonia in a biological sample derived from the subject.
 175. The method of claim 174, wherein the one or more biomarkers comprise histone, histone/Pαl complexes, histone/lαl complexes, histone/lαl/Pαl complexes, TNF-α, IL-6, IL-10, IL-1, IL-1ra, IL1B, IL-8, MCP-1, MIP-2, CRP, PCT, cytokine-induced neutrophil chemoattractant/KC, UTI, a complement component, or fragments thereof.
 176. The method of claim 175, wherein the complement component is selected from the group consisting of C1, C2, C3, C3a, C3b, C4, C4b, C5, C5a, C5b, C6, C7, C8, C9, membrane attack complex, Factor B, Factor D, MASP-1, and MASP-2.
 177. The method of claim 161, wherein the biological sample derived from the subject is a blood sample, a urine sample, a sputum sample, or a bronchiolar lavage fluid sample.
 178. The method of claim 164, wherein the biological sample derived from the subject is a blood sample, a urine sample, a sputum sample, or a bronchiolar lavage fluid sample.
 179. The method of claim 174, wherein the biological sample derived from the subject is a blood sample, a urine sample, a sputum sample, or a bronchiolar lavage fluid sample.
 180. The method of claim 177, wherein the blood sample is whole blood, serum, plasma, or a combination thereof.
 181. The method of claim 178, wherein the blood sample is whole blood, serum, plasma, or a combination thereof.
 182. The method of claim 179, wherein the blood sample is whole blood, serum, plasma, or a combination thereof.
 183. The method of claim 1, wherein the method further comprises administering a second treatment for the ARDS or the pneumonia.
 184. The method of claim 183, wherein the second treatment comprises one or more of an antibiotic, an antiviral agent, an antifungal agent, an antiparasitic agent, an anti-inflammatory agent, a bronchodilator, a vasopressor, a sedative, or mechanical ventilation.
 185. The method of claim 1, wherein the method further comprises administering an inhibitor of complement activation.
 186. The method of claim 1, wherein the method comprises neutralization of histones and extracellular histones.
 187. The method of claim 1, wherein the administration of the lαlps inhibits activation of one or more complement components.
 188. The method of claim 187, wherein the complement components comprise C1, C2, C3, C3a, C3b, C4, C4b, C5, C5a, C5b, C6, C7, C8, C9, membrane attack complex, Factor B, Factor D, MASP-1, MASP-2, or fragments thereof.
 189. The method of claim 1, wherein the administration of the lαlps reduces the likelihood of death or hospitalization time for the subject.
 190. The method of claim 1, wherein the method comprises administering a composition comprising lαl and/or Pαl.
 191. The method of claim 190, wherein the composition comprises a dosage of lαl and/or Pαl of about 1 mg/kg to about 50 mg/kg.
 192. The method of claim 191, wherein the composition comprises a dosage of the lαl and/or Pαl proteins of about 5 mg/kg to about 15 mg/kg.
 193. The method of claim 190, wherein the composition is administered to the subject one or more times every 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 12, or 24 hours, every 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, or 6, days, or every 1, 2, 3, or 4 weeks.
 194. The method of claim 190, wherein the composition further comprises a pharmaceutically acceptable excipient, diluent, or carrier.
 195. The method of claim 190, wherein the composition is formulated as a solid.
 196. The method of claim 190, wherein the composition is formulated as a liquid.
 197. The method of claim 190, wherein the composition is formulated for inhalation, insufflation, nebulization, or injection, or is formulated for oral, rectal, topical, or intraperitoneal administration.
 198. The method of claim 197, wherein the injection is intravenous injection.
 199. The method of claim 190, wherein the composition has a half-life of greater than 1, 1.5, 2, 2.5, 3, 3.5, 4, 4.5, 5, 7.5, or 10 hours.
 200. The method of claim 190, wherein the composition further comprises an antibiotic, an antiviral agent, an antifungal agent, an anti-parasitic agent, an anti-inflammatory agent, a vasopressor, a sedative, or a bronchodilator.
 201. The method of claim 200, wherein the antibiotic agent comprises amoxicillin, penicillin, doxycycline, clarithromycin, benzylpenicillin, azithromycin, daptomycin, linezolid, levofloxacin, moxifloxacin, gatifloxcin, gentamicin, macrolides, cephalosporins, azithromycin, ciprofloxacin, cefuroxime, amoxillin-potassium clavulanate, erythromycin, sulfamethoxazole-trimethoprim, doxycycline monohydrate, cefepime, ampicillin, cefpodoxime, ceftriaxone, cefazolin, erythromycin ethylsuccinate, meropenem, piperacillin-tazobactam, amikacin, erythromycin stearate, cefepime in dextrose, doxycycline hyclate, ampicillin-sulbactam, ceftazidime, gemifloxacin, gentamicin sulfate, erythromycin lactobionate, imipenem-cilastatin, cefoxitin, cefditoren pivoxil, ertapenem, doxycycline-benzoyl peroxide, ampicillin-sulbactam, meropenem, cefuroxime, cefotetan, or piperacillin-tazobactam.
 202. The method of claim 200, wherein the antiviral agent comprises zanamivir, oseltamivir, permivir, ribavirin, acyclovir, ganciclovir, foscarnet, or cidofovir.
 203. The method of claim 200, wherein the antifungal agent comprises amphotericin, caspofungin, voriconazole, itraconazole, posaconazole, fluconazole, or flucytosine.
 204. The method of claim 200, wherein the antiparasitic agent comprises nitazoxanide, melarsoprol, eflornithine, metronidazole, tinidazole, miltefosine, mebendazole, pyrantel pamoate, thiabendazole, diethylcarbamazine, ivermectin, albendazole, praziquantel, or rifampin.
 205. The method of claim 200, wherein the anti-inflammatory agent comprises a corticosteroid, a statin, a steroid, a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug, or a glucocorticoid.
 206. The method of claim 200, wherein the bronchodilator comprises a beta 2 agonist, a xanthine, ipratropium, oxitropium, a muscarinic receptor antagonist, ipratropium, oxitropium, theophylline, theobromine, caffeine, salbutamol, isoproterenol, albuterol, levalburerol, pirbuterol, metaproterenol, terbutaline, salmeterol, or formoterol.
 207. The method of claim 200, wherein the vasopressor comprises epinephrine, isoproterenol, phenylephrine, norepinephrine, dobutamine, ephedrine, or droxidopa.
 208. The method of claim 200, wherein the sedative comprises propofol, diprivan, morphine, fentanyl, midazolam, lorazepam, precede, infumorph, dexmedetomidine, or alfentanil.
 209. The method of claim 1, wherein the composition further comprises an inhibitor of complement activation.
 210. The method of claim 209, wherein the composition inhibits activation of one or more complement components.
 211. The method of claim 210, wherein the complement components comprise C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, or fragments thereof.
 212. The method of claim 1, wherein the subject is a mammal.
 213. The method of claim 212, wherein the mammal is human.
 214. The method of claim 213, wherein the human is an infant, a child, or an adult.
 215. The method of claim 212, wherein the mammal is a horse, a dog, a cat, a rabbit, or a pig.
 216. The method of claim 1, wherein the subject has the ARDS or the pneumonia.
 217. The method of claim 1, wherein the subject is not hospitalized.
 218. The method of claim 1, wherein the subject is hospitalized.
 219. The method of claim 218, wherein the subject is in an intensive care unit.
 220. The method of claim 1, wherein the subject requires ventilator-assisted breathing.
 221. The method of claim 220, wherein the ventilator-assisted breathing is mechanical ventilator-assisted breathing.
 222. The method of claim 221, wherein the mechanical ventilator-assisted breathing is invasive mechanical ventilator-assisted breathing.
 223. The method of claim 221, wherein the mechanical ventilator-assisted breathing is non-invasive mechanical ventilator-assisted breathing.
 224. The method of claim 221, wherein the mechanical ventilator-assisted breathing is pressure-limited or volume-limited.
 225. The method of claim 1, wherein the subject has one or more organ failures.
 226. The method of claim 225, wherein the subject has two or more organ failures.
 227. The method of claim 226, wherein the subject has failures of the liver failure, kidney, intestine, heart, or brain.
 228. The method of claim 225, wherein the subject has respiratory failure.
 229. The method of claim 1, wherein the subject is identified as being in need of treatment using one or more of the following: chest imaging, arterial blood gas level, partial pressure of oxygen (PaO₂) levels, partial pressure of carbon dioxide (PaCO₂) levels, blood pH, pathogen specific test, or sputum evaluation.
 230. The method of claim 229, wherein the chest imaging is chest X-ray.
 231. The method of claim 1, wherein the subject is identified as having mild, moderate or severe hypoxemia as determined by PaO₂/FiO₂ or positive end-expiratory pressure (PEEP).
 232. The method of claim 1, wherein the subject is identified as having bilateral opacities consistent with edema.
 233. The method of claim 1, wherein the subject is identified as having confusion, blood urea nitrogen being equal to one more than 20 mg/dL, respiratory rate being equal to or greater than 30 breaths per minute, systolic blood pressure being less than 90 mm Hg, diastolic blood pressure being equal to or less than 60 mm Hg, or is 65 or older.
 234. The method of claim 1, wherein the subject is identified as being a nursing home resident; having neoplastic disease; having a history of liver, heart, cerebrovascular, or renal disease; being in a state of altered mental state; having a respiratory rate greater than or equal to 30 breaths per minute; having a systolic blood pressure above 90 mmHg, having a temperature above 35° C. or greater than or equal to 40° C.; having a pulse greater than or equal to 125/min; arterial pH less than 7.35; having a blood urea nitrogen greater than or equal to 30 ng/dL, sodium levels being greater than 130 mmol/L; having glucose levels greater than or equal to 250 mg/dl or greater than 13.8 mmol/liter); having hematocrit values being less than 30%; having a partial pressure of oxygen less than 60 mm Hg; or by the presence of pleural effusion on X-ray.
 235. The method of claim 1, wherein the administration of the lαlps reduces the physiological response to inflammatory mediators such as cytokines, chemokines, complement, or histones.
 236. The method of claim 1, wherein the subject has undergone a lung transplant.
 237. The method of claim 1, wherein the subject is scheduled to undergo a lung transplant.
 238. The method of claim 1, wherein the method comprises administering the lαlps to the subject at least 10, 15, 20, 30, 60, or 120 minutes after a lung insult.
 239. The method of claim 238, wherein the lung insult occurs as a result of radiation treatment, chemotherapy, or exposure to high altitude, swimming, or diving.
 240. The method of claim 1, wherein the method comprises administering the lαlps to the subject at least 10, 15, 20, 30, 60, or 120 minutes before a lung insult.
 241. The method of claim 240, wherein the lung insult occurs as a result of surgery.
 242. The method of claim 3, wherein the lαlps are administered at physiological proportions.
 243. The method of claim 3, wherein the lαlps are at about 80% to about 100% purity.
 244. The method of claim 242, wherein the lαlps are at about 80% to about 100% purity. 